Overview

Atilax paludinosus – (G.[Baron] Cuvier, 1829)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – CARNIVORA – HERPESTIDAE – Atilax – paludinosus

Common Names: Water Mongoose, Marsh Mongoose (English), Kommetjiegatmuishond (Afrikaans), Imvuzi (Ndebele), Chidzvororo (Shona), Motswiswi (Sotho), Liduha (Swati), Tshaagane (Tswana), Umhlangala (Xhosa), Umvuzi (Zulu)

Synonyms: No Synonyms 

Taxonomic Note: 
Recent molecular studies have revealed that the Water Mongoose is a sister-species to the Long-nosed Mongoose (Xenogale naso) (Veron et al. 2022). 

Red List Status: LC – Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) 

Assessment Information

Assessors: Streicher, J.P.^1,2.3, da Silva, J.M.¹ & Ehlers Smith, Y.^4,3 

Reviewers: Nicholson, S.K.⁵ & Do Linh San, E⁶

Institutions: ¹South African National Biodiversity Institute, ²BirdLife South Africa, ³University of KwaZulu-Natal, ⁴Ezemvelo KZN Wildlife, ⁵Endangered Wildlife Trust, ⁶Sol Plaatjie University 

Previous Assessors & Reviewers: Baker, C., Stuart, C., Stuart, M., Aviwe, N., Peinke, D., Maddock, A.H., Perrin, M., Somers, M.J., Do Linh San, E. 

Previous Contributors: Ray, J., Page-Nicholson, S. & Child, M.F. 

Assessment Rationale 

The Water Mongoose is listed as Least Concern since it has a wide distribution range within the assessment region, occurs in many protected areas, and is generally common in suitable habitat. It is relatively tolerant of modified or disturbed habitats, and there is no reason to believe that it is declining at a rate fast enough to warrant listing in a higher category of threat. However, we advise that monitoring is necessary, especially in areas where development may be affecting water supply and quality, to determine any potential negative impacts. Climate change could also threaten this species in the future, especially local subpopulations, as water sources and systems are affected.

Regional population effects: The distribution of this species in the assessment region is continuous with the rest of the African range, so rescue effects are possible. However, dispersal and movements in general are likely to be dependent upon the presence of water corridors (permanent and seasonal rivers and streams, dam networks, wetlands). 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citation: Streicher JP, da Silva JM & Ehlers Smith Y. 2025. A conservation assessment of Atilax paludinosus. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range 

The Water Mongoose is widely distributed from Senegal, Guinea-Bissau and Sierra Leone, eastward to southern Sudan and Ethiopia, and south to southern Africa, where it is absent from most of Namibia, Botswana and large parts of central South Africa, wherever adequate water and cover are unavailable (Baker & Ray 2013). It has been recorded from sea level to altitudes of 3,950 m asl in the Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia (Yalden et al. 1996).

Within the assessment region, it occurs in all provinces of South Africa, along most rivers (including seasonal rivers) and along most of the coastline (except the north of the Northern Cape) in areas where there is running water. It also occurs widely in Eswatini and Lesotho (Lynch 1994, Monadjem 1998) 

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): 0 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): 3950 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Water Mongoose (Atilax paludinosus) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

FAO Marine Areas: (Not specified) 

Climate change

No studies have been conducted on the impacts of climate change for this species, however, it could threaten the species in the future, especially local subpopulations, as water sources and systems are affected. 

Population Information

Water Mongooses are generally common in suitable habitat. For example, they were the second most photographed species in a camera-trapping study in the Udzungwa Mountains, Tanzania (De Luca & Mpunga 2005) and the most photographed species in a camera-trapping study Kibale National Park, Uganda (Mills et al. 2019). Within a restricted area (Vernon Crookes Nature Reserve), in KwaZulu-Natal, the density was recorded at 1.8 individuals / km² (Maddock 1988). We suspect that the population is stable due to its wide distribution. There is currently no evidence to indicate that deteriorating water quantity and quality across the region has impacted significantly on overall density and distribution of this species, although local declines are possible. Thus, deteriorating water quality is not a reliable index for Water Mongoose abundance. There is no doubt that declining water resources will have an impact, but this species is very versatile and can exist without permanent water sources for extended periods. On the other hand, water systems may increase through artificial wetland creation. 

Population Information 

Current population trend: Unknown, but probably stable. 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: Unknown. It is not currently possible to determine the extent or number of subpopulations. 

Continuing decline in mature individuals? Probably not, although local declines cannot be excluded. 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Number of mature individuals in population: Unknown  

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown 

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown 

Severely fragmented: No, although the Water Mongoose’s dependency on the presence of water and cover means that its distribution is certainly patchy at the landscape scale. 

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population Genetics

Apart from karyological studies examining chromosomal differences between the sexes (e.g., Pathak and Stock 1976), there has been no other genetic study published on this species. Given that the species is widely distributed wherever adequate resources are available, it is assumed to exist as a single metapopulation across the assessment region. A targeted population genetic study across the species range would be informative, not only to confirm the spatial structure within the species, but also to obtain estimates of the effective population size. 

Habitats and ecology

The Water Mongoose is mainly restricted to riparian habitats (rivers, streams, swamps, marshes and dams), wherever there is suitable vegetation cover and water in close proximity. It is fairly tolerant of altered flow regimes and pollutants. The species is also found along estuaries and in coastal areas. It is also able to live and survive comfortably some distance from water, but there is a clear preference for riparian habitats (Baker & Ray 2013).

This semi-aquatic mongoose is not suspected to compete significantly with the Cape Clawless Otter (Aonyx capensis) and the Spotted-necked Otter (Hydrictis maculicollis) as it does not forage in the water bodies as such. Since it is a shoreline forager, access via sandy and easily accessible rocky shorelines is desirable. Its diet comprises mostly aquatic prey with crabs and frogs usually dominating (Rowe-Rowe 1978; Whitfield & Blaber 1980; Louw & Nel 1986; MacDonald & Nel 1986; Purves et al. 1994; Streicher et al. 2022), which is unusual among herpestids. However, in some areas, small mammals, terrestrial arthropods, fish and/or birds are also important food sources and may even dominate the diet (du Toit 1980; Maddock 1988; Baker 1989; Somers & Purves 1996; Avenant & Nel 1997; Stuart & Stuart 2003; Nqinana 2009; Do Linh San et al. 2020). The species has been observed to scavenge on carcasses (Power 2014; Keyes et al. 2021). In urban areas of KwaZulu-Natal, the species is documented to supplement their diet with anthropogenic waste (Streicher et al. 2022).

The Water Mongoose is a nocturnal species with peaks of activity in both the early and later hours of the night (Maddock 1988; Ray 1997, Webster et al. 2021), but occasionally it is already active in the late afternoon and/or extends its activity until early morning (Rowe-Rowe 1978, Mills et al. 2019). During the day, individuals sleep in burrows or in high grass or dense reed patches (Ray 1997; E. Do Linh San & M.J. Somers unpubl. data). The day-beds themselves are often located in dry areas on relatively high ground, surrounded by deep mud or water (Ray 1997). In parts of the Karoo Plateau, this mongoose dens up in rock crevices, overhangs and piles (C. Stuart & M. Stuart pers. obs. 1995–2016).

This species is predominantly solitary, although during the breeding season it is not uncommon to observe groups of two or three individuals (mother and offspring) (Photo 1). Adult males and females only meet to mate. The spatial ecology of this species has not been studied thoroughly. In KwaZulu-Natal, Maddock (1988) found home range sizes of 2.04 km² for a male and 1.31 km² for a female, respectively. More recent studies by Streicher and colleagues (2021) in KwaZulu-Natal Midlands found an average (± S.E) home range size of 14.38 km² ± 1.95 km² for males and 10.14 km² ± 1.68 for females. In residential suburbs of KwaZulu-Natal Streicher (2022) found average home range sizes of 1.20 km² ± 0.34 for a male and 0.74 km² ± 0.30 for a female, respectively Often, home ranges are rather linear in shape, with individuals sometimes travelling up and down streams up to 5 km in length (Ray 1997). Baker and Ray (2013) suggested that females likely hold territories, while males are more mobile, but further research is needed to confirm this hypothesis. In urban environments, female water mongoose exhibited non-territorial towards conspecifics, male water mongooses were highly territorial towards other males, with their spatial range only overlapping with potential mates (Streicher et al. 2021; Streicher et al. 2022). 

In forested habitats in Southern KwaZulu-Natal the species has an overall occupancy rate of 0.38 (38%) out of 250 camera trap sites. Site occupancy in forested habitats is positively influenced by a high proportion of leaf litter availability but negatively influenced by stem density of trees 6–10 m in height, indicating a preference for old growth forest (Ehlers Smith et al. 2017). The species occupancy is also lower within Protected Areas compared to farmland and urban areas (Ehlers Smith et al. 2018).

Water Mongooses communicate with both vocalisations and behavioural displays (Baker 1988), cheek marking and anal gland marking during defecation (Baker 1998). Scats are deposited in middens, which are located in marshy clearings, sandy beaches near streams, on banks around dams or on rocks above the high water mark in coastal areas (Louw & Nel 1986; Macdonald & Nel 1986; Purves et al. 1994; Ray & Sunquist 2001; E. Do Linh San pers. obs. 2006–2009). This species is reputed to be very fierce and capable of successfully confronting domestic dogs when cornered. The expulsion of anal sac constituents when under stress is well documented.

In the assessment region, mating takes place between August and February (Rowe-Rowe 1978; Stuart 1981). Females give birth to 2–3 young (Baker & Meester 1986) after a gestation period of 73–74 days (Baker 1987). Postnatal physical and behavioural development has been studied thoroughly (Baker & Meester 1986; Baker 1992). This species can live up to 19 years in captivity (Nowak 1999).

Ecosystem and cultural services: None known. In the assessment region, its main predators are likely Black-backed Jackals (Lupulella mesomelas), Caracals (Caracal caracal) and Leopards (Panthera pardus). 

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Life History 

Generation Length: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Male: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: (Not specified) 

Longevity: 17 years in captivity 

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified) 

Maximum Size (in cms): (Not specified) 

Size at Birth (in cms): 108.5 grams 

Gestation Time:  74 days 

Reproductive Periodicity: (Not specified) 

Litter Size:  2.5 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Does the species lay eggs? (Not specified) 

Does the species give birth to live young: (Not specified) 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: (Not specified) 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? (Not specified) 

Does the species require water for breeding? (Not specified) 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: (Not specified) 

Congregatory: (Not specified) 

Systems 

System: Terrestrial, Freshwater (=Inland waters) 

General Use and Trade Information

The Water Mongoose is commonly found in bushmeat markets in several West African countries. For example, it was the most common carnivore appearing in bushmeat markets in southeastern Nigeria (Angelici et al. 1999) and in village offtakes in Gabon (Bahaa-el-din et al. 2013). It was also commonly recorded in bushmeat surveys in the Classified Forest of Diecke, Guinea (Colyn et al. 2004). This species is not known to be used as bushmeat within the assessment region, but fat and glands are said to be used in some traditional medicine applications (this probably only occurs in the east of South Africa). Pelts have no commercial value.

National Commercial Value: No 

International Commercial Value: No 

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified) 

Harvest Trend Comments: All, but harvest likely very limited. 

Threats

No major threats to the species are currently known. However, since it is dependent on riverine vegetation for shelter in some parts of the assessment region (but not all; for example, in the Karoo), the loss of this habitat may result in some localised declines where habitat loss is taking place (Baker & Ray 2013). For example, the drainage of swamplands for conversion to arable land has been identified as a threat to Water Mongooses in eastern Africa (Andama 2000).

However, within the assessment region, a number of threats may synergise together to cause local population declines. These include human development (for example, fracking in the Karoo), agricultural intensification, and climate change causing declining water quality in small streams and watercourses. Poor farming practices also impact on buffer zones along watercourses. These factors are likely to negatively impact the abundance and viability of aquatic food resources for Water Mongooses and other water-dependent species. Already 84% of South African river ecosystem types are threatened, and 54% are Critically Endangered (Nel et al. 2007).

Water Mongooses are not persecuted directly except as bycatch in predator control programmes. In view of their secretive and nocturnal nature, they are less “visible” and thus less subject to direct actions. They are occasionally (and locally) victims of road traffic collisions and domestic dog attacks. In Southern KwaZulu-Natal their preference for urban and agricultural land may render them more vulnerable to anthropogenic threats and land-use change (Ehlers Smith et al. 2018). 

Urban regions may pose a future threat to the species through the exposure to anticoagulant poison and consumption of anthropogenic waste, studies are still limited (Serieys et al. 2019; Streicher et al. 2022).  

Conservation

The Water Mongoose is present in many protected areas across its range within the assessment region. However, water management practices, especially outside protected areas, should be carefully planned to avoid negatively impacting riverine ecosystems and wetlands. The most important interventions for this species are those that conserve watersheds and riparian valleys and those which improve stream flow and water quality (such as through alien invasive species removal). There is a need to enforce the National Water Act (No. 36 of 1998) and to ensure that the tools provided for in this act – for example, ecological reserve determination and resource quality objectives – are applied to protect our freshwater ecosystems. 

Although the Water Mongoose is a potential candidate as an indicator species for evaluating the effectiveness of the Working for Water programme, its versatile habitat preference and diet makes it unlikely to be sensitive enough to changing conditions.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: 

• Maintain and improve the ecological integrity of river systems by conserving buffer strips of vegetation around water courses and removing alien invasive vegetation. For example, the Working for Water programme should be used to remove alien vegetation and improve water flow. 

 Research priorities: 

• Monitoring Water Mongoose subpopulation trends and measuring the impact of water quality and quantity deterioration. 
• Monitoring of river system health status linked to population abundance indices. 

 Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Report sightings or presence of diagnostic spoor (with picture) on virtual museum platforms (for example, iNaturalist and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas, to improve this species’ distribution map. 
• Employ the Working for Water programme to reduce alien vegetation and improve water flow on your land. 
• Report illegal land- and water-use practices to the authorities. 
• Protect sensitive riparian areas. 

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