Overview

Stenella longirostris – (Gray, 1828)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – ARTIODACTYLA – DELPHINIDAE – Stenella – longirostris 

Common Names: Spinner Dolphin, Gray’s Spinner Dolphin, Long-beaked Dolphin, Long-snouted Dolphin, Long-snouted Spinner Dolphin, Small-headed Dolphin, Spinner, Spinner Porpoise, Spinning Dolphin, Spinning Porpoise (English), Toldolfyn (Afrikaans), Dauphin longirostre (French), Delfín Tornillón, Estenela Giradora (Spanish; Castilian)
Synonyms: Delphinus longirostris Gray, 1828  

Taxonomic Note: 
Recent genetic work indicates that the genus Stenella is paraphyletic and it is likely that the Delphininae will be restructured in the coming years (LeDuc et al. 1999, Perrin et al. 2013).

Four subspecies of Spinner Dolphins are currently recognised: S. l. longirostris (Gray’s Spinner Dolphin), S. l. orientalis (Eastern Spinner Dolphin), S. l. centroamericana (Central American Spinner Dolphin) and S. l. roseiventris (Dwarf Spinner Dolphin) (Perrin 1990, Perrin et al. 1999). There is a zone of hydridisation between Gray’s Spinner and the Eastern Spinner where an intermediate form called the White-bellied Spinner occurs (Andrews et al. 2013). Smaller individuals in Arabian waters (Red Sea and Arabian Gulf) (Van Waerebeek et al. 1999) and morphologically different animals in West Africa may represent as yet undescribed subspecies (Cadenat 1959, Jefferson et al. 1997). Several studies have demonstrated significant meta-population genetic structure, especially where relatively insular dolphin communities are strongly associated with island resting habitat such as in the Hawaiian Archipelago (Andrews et al. 2013) and in the South Pacific (Oremus et al. 2007). 

Red List Status: LC – Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) 

Assessment Information

Assessors: Plön, S.,¹ & da Silva, J.² 

Reviewer: Purdon, J.³,⁴ 

Institutions: ¹TBC, ²South African National Biodiversity Institute, ³TUT Nature Conservation, ⁴Whale Unit, University of Pretoria 

Previous Assessors: Plön, S., Relton, C. & Cockcroft, V. 

Previous Reviewers: Atkins, S. & Child, M.F. 

Previous Contributors: Elwen, S., Findlay, K. & Meÿer, M. 

Assessment Rationale 

Stenella species have not been well studied in the assessment region and population size and trend estimates are unavailable. However, periodic, but regular strandings suggest that there is no major population decline of these species. Additionally, Pantropical Spotted and Spinner Dolphins are abundant in the Indian Ocean. Although general pelagic threats may apply and annual takes of Stenella species occur in regions outside of the assessment region, no major threats were identified for these species; thus they are not considered conservation priorities. However, the potential emerging threat of a drift-net fishery requires monitoring. The listing as Least Concern is retained for S. attenuata, S. coeruleoalba and S. longirostris.

Regional population effects: No barriers to dispersal of these species have been identified, thus rescue effects are possible. 

Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citations: Plön S & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Stenella longirostris. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range

Generally, Stenella species occur in tropical and subtropical waters, but the extent of their range is poorly known in many regions (Moreno et al. 2005). The Spinner Dolphin occurs throughout tropical and subtropical zones of the northern and southern hemisphere, where the broad limits of their range extend from approximately 40°N to 40°S. Stenella l. longirostris primarily inhabits waters around the oceanic islands of the tropical Atlantic and Indian Oceans, as well as the western and central Pacific, eastwards to about 145°W (Rice 1998). In the assessment region, it occurs on the east coast from Kosi Bay southwards possibly to 34°S, and is found in coastal and continental shelf zones. In the south-west Indian Ocean, the species has been recorded as far south as Cape Vidal, South Africa (28°08’S), but in the south-east Atlantic are only known as far as 16° S (St Helena), possibly because of the northward extension of the cold Benguela System (Best 2007). 

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Spinner Dolphin (Stenella longirostris) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical, Australasian, Indomalayan, Nearctic, Neotropical, Oceanian, Palearctic 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Country	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
American Samoa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Angola	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Anguilla	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Antigua and Barbuda	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Argentina	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Aruba	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Australia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bahamas	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bahrain	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bangladesh	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Barbados	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Belize	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Benin	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Bermuda	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Brazil	Extant	Native	–	Resident
British Indian Ocean Territory	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Brunei Darussalam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cabo Verde	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cambodia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cameroon	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Cayman Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
China	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Colombia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Comoros	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Congo	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Congo, The Democratic Republic of the	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Cook Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Costa Rica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cuba	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Curaçao	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Côte d’Ivoire	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Djibouti	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Dominica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Dominican Republic	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Ecuador	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Ecuador -> Galápagos	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Egypt	Extant	Native	–	Resident
El Salvador	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Equatorial Guinea	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Eritrea	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Fiji	Extant	Native	–	Resident
French Guiana	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
French Polynesia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Gabon	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Gambia	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Ghana	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Grenada	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Guadeloupe	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Guam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guatemala	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guinea	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guinea-Bissau	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Guyana	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Haiti	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Honduras	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Hong Kong	Extant	Native	–	Resident
India	Extant	Native	–	Resident
India -> Andaman Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
India -> Nicobar Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Indonesia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Iran, Islamic Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Iraq	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Israel	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Jamaica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Japan	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Japan -> Honshu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Jordan	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Kenya	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Kiribati	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Korea, Republic of	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Kuwait	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Liberia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Madagascar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Malaysia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Maldives	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Marshall Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Martinique	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mauritania	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Mauritius	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mexico	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Micronesia, Federated States of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Montserrat	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Morocco	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Mozambique	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Myanmar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Namibia	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Nauru	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
New Caledonia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
New Zealand	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
New Zealand -> Kermadec Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
New Zealand -> North Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Nicaragua	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Nigeria	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Niue	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Northern Mariana Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Oman	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Pakistan	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Palau	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Panama	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Papua New Guinea	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Peru	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Philippines	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Pitcairn	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Puerto Rico	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Réunion	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Barthélemy	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Lucia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Martin (French part)	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Samoa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sao Tome and Principe	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Saudi Arabia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Senegal	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Seychelles	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sierra Leone	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Singapore	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sint Maarten (Dutch part)	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Solomon Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Somalia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa -> KwaZulu-Natal	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sri Lanka	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sudan	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Suriname	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Taiwan, Province of China	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Tanzania, United Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Thailand	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Timor-Leste	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Togo	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Tokelau	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Tonga	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Trinidad and Tobago	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Turks and Caicos Islands	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Tuvalu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United Arab Emirates	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
United States Minor Outlying Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America -> Hawaiian Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America -> New Jersey	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Uruguay	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Vanuatu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Viet Nam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Virgin Islands, British	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Virgin Islands, U.S.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Wallis and Futuna	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Western Sahara	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Yemen	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident
Yemen -> Socotra	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Resident

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
21. Atlantic – northwest	Extant	Native	–	–
31. Atlantic – western central	Extant	Native	–	–
34. Atlantic – eastern central	Extant	Native	–	–
41. Atlantic – southwest	Extant	Native	–	–
47. Atlantic – southeast	Extant	Native	–	–
51. Indian Ocean – western	Extant	Native	–	–
57. Indian Ocean – eastern	Extant	Native	–	–
61. Pacific – northwest	Extant	Native	–	–
71. Pacific – western central	Extant	Native	–	–
77. Pacific – eastern central	Extant	Native	–	–
81. Pacific – southwest	Extant	Native	–	–
87. Pacific – southeast	Extant	Native	–	–

Climate change

Climate change affects cetaceans through a reduction in prey availability and a shift in the distribution of prey species (Kebke et al. 2022). This in turn results in a change in distribution range of cetaceans. In addition to affecting distribution range and abundance, climate change can also impact migration timing and behaviour (Kebke et al. 2022). With the reduction in food availability comes a change in body condition, leading to a decline in reproductive success. However, these impacts are all species-specific. Specific research needs to be carried on the impact of climate change on Spinner Dolphins. 

Population

No estimates of abundance are available for Stenella species within the assessment region. No population research has been conducted on Spinner Dolphins within the assessment region, and it is known only from strandings and incidental sightings. Spinner Dolphins are wide-ranging, occurring both in deep pelagic waters far from the coast, as well as around islands and banks. The population is very unlikely to be isolated and long-distance movement is highly probable. Additionally, movement between Mozambique and South Africa is expected. Model based estimates of generation time for the Spinner Dolphin has been recorded at 13.7 years (Taylor et al. 2007).

Current population trend: Unknown  

Continuing decline in mature individuals: Unknown  

Number of mature individuals in population: Unknown  

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown 

Number of subpopulations: Unknown  

Severely fragmented: No 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population Genetics

No genetic studies on this species have incorporated animals from the assessment region; however, the species has been extensively studied in other parts of its range (Andrews et al. 2013; Webster et al. 2015; Leslie & Morin 2016, 2018; Faria et al. 2020). They are widely distributed in tropical waters, but have been known to occur as small, genetically isolated groups confined to specific islands. Given their ability for long-distance dispersal is it expected that the animals within the assessment region form part of a single population extending beyond its waters. Based on this information, the proportion of populations maintained for this species in the assessment region (Populations Maintained Indicator) is 1.0. Unfortunately, due to the lack of data on population sizes or density, no estimate of effective population size can be quantified. 

Habitats and ecology

Stenella species are relatively small dolphins, often inhabiting coastal and offshore tropical and subtropical waters, with distributions that overlap in many portions of their range (Moreno et al. 2005). Spinner Dolphins occur throughout tropical waters and warm temperate regions, often within inshore waters or around islands and banks; although in the eastern Tropical Pacific they are frequently seen in deep pelagic regions several hundred kilometres from the coast. Spinner Dolphins in the western Atlantic have been observed in tropical waters over the continental shelf and slope, in waters ranging from 170 m to 2,700 m deep (Moreno et al. 2005).

While in Hawaii Spinner Dolphins travel in groups of up to a few hundred, spinner dolphins in the subregion have been seen in schools of 1-1000 animals, with a mean of 56.8 (n=39; Best 2007). The characteristic spinning behaviour exhibited by this species is most likely attributed to communication (Norris et al. 1985), but an alternative hypothesis is that this behaviour aids in the removal of ecoparasites or commensals (Perrin & Gilpatrick 1994). The first of a series of descending leaps can reach a height of 3 m (Norris et al. 1985; Perrin & Gilpatrick 1994). Most Spinner Dolphins feed predominantly at night, on small (< 20 cm) midwater fish of many different families (including Myctophids), squids, and sergestid shrimps (Perrin et al. 1973; Dolar et al. 2003). Spinner Dolphins are suggested to hunt at greater depths and at different times of the day, compared to Pantropical Spotted Dolphins. There is currently no data attributed to the diet of Spinner Dolphins from South African waters.

A newborn calf from the waters off KwaZulu-Natal was 0.83 m in length (Ross 1984), although in the eastern Pacific average length at birth was recorded at 0.77 m (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Seasonality in reproduction of Spinner Dolphins appears to vary depending on habitat and distribution (Barlow 1984). Both males and females reach sexual maturity at lengths of 1.6–1.7 m, usually at an age of 6–9 years in males and 4–7 years in females, although again, there is some variation between populations (Perrin & Henderson 1984). Approximate calving interval is three years.

Ecosystem and cultural services: Bycatch mitigation measures to reduce Spinner Dolphin entanglement in fishing gear in the Pacific led to the phrase “Dolphin friendly tuna”. 

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Habitat	Season	Suitability	Major Importance?
9.1. Marine Neritic -> Marine Neritic – Pelagic	–	Suitable	Yes
10.1. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Epipelagic (0-200m)	–	Suitable	Yes

Life History 

Generation Length: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Male: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: (Not specified) 

Longevity: (Not specified) 

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified) 

Maximum Size (in cms): (Not specified) 

Size at Birth (in cms): (Not specified) 

Gestation Time: (Not specified) 

Reproductive Periodicity: (Not specified) 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: (Not specified) 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Does the species lay eggs? (Not specified) 

Does the species give birth to live young: (Not specified) 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: (Not specified) 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? (Not specified) 

Does the species require water for breeding? (Not specified) 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: (Not specified) 

Congregatory: (Not specified) 

Systems 

System: Marine 

General Use and Trade Information

There is no trade of these species within South Africa, although in certain regions Stenella spp. are hunted for food and as bait for fisheries. 

Subsistence:	Rationale:	Local Commercial:	Further detail including information on economic value if available:
Yes	–	–	–

National Commercial Value: Yes 

International Commercial Value: No 

End Use	Subsistence	National	International	Other (please specify)
1. Food – human	true	true	–	–
2. Food – animal	true	–	–	–

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified) 

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified) 

Threats

The offshore distribution of Stenella species within the region suggests that industrial activity is not a major threat, additionally MacLeod (2009) predicted that due to the tropical distribution of S. longirostris, it is unlikely that this species would be negatively influenced by the effects of climate change. However, although it is largely undocumented, due to their diet and distribution, localised threats to these species include accidental bycatch and competition for prey resources associated with pelagic fisheries.

Spinner Dolphins have been recorded as bycatch in purse-seine, trawl and gillnet fisheries throughout their range (Donahue & Edwards 1996), including the Indian Ocean (44 in Zanzibar in 2000-2003, for instance; Amir et al. 2005). Although the rate of bycatch is largely unrecorded, as the most abundant dolphin within the Indian Ocean, entanglement incidences of Spinner Dolphins are likely to be substantial in this region. Artisanal set nets off Mozambique have been identified as a specific threat to Spinner Dolphins. In the eastern Tropical Pacific, mortality as a result of entanglement in purse-seine fisheries was estimates at 130,000 individuals in 1971 (Perrin et al. 1982), but more recently (1995) this rate of mortality declined to 1,100 animals (Hall & Lennert 1997). 

The species has also been documented to be affected by ship strikes, although this appears to be rare (Schoeman et al. 2020). 

Current habitat trend: Declining, due to increasing competition with pelagic fisheries for prey resources. 

Conservation

No species-specific conservation initiatives have been identified for Stenella species within the assessment region, although S. attenuata, S. coeruleoalba and S. longirostris are all listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), and are protected by national legislation under the Marine Living Resources Act (No. 18 of 1998).

Ship-based sighting surveys are recommended for the assessment region to determine general abundance, seasonality and distribution of Stenella species, and the pelagic zone of the temperate Agulhas Current should be specifically targeted. Additionally, investigations into the severity of threats and possible mitigation measures (including the use of alternative fishing gear technologies) associated with pelagic trawl, gillnet and purse-seine fisheries are required for these species. In response to the negative effects associated with fisheries bycatch of other dolphin species, Buscaino et al. (2009) suggest a collaborative response towards sustainable exploitation of oceanic resources, a decrease in the intensity of marine extraction and the establishment of protected areas.

Recommendations for managers and practitioners: 

• Accurate bycatch assessments in the pelagic trawl, gillnet and purse-seine fisheries. 
• Enforce regulations associated with deep water fisheries, including bycatch mitigation efforts. 
• Sightings data should be recorded during systematic monitoring of other marine species. 

Research priorities: 

• Basic life history parameters, population size, structure and trends within the assessment region. 
• Bycatch assessments in pelagic fisheries, including a specific reassessment of the western Indian Ocean fisheries. 
• Taxonomic resolution of the Stenella genus. 
• Distribution and the identification of core concentration regions of these species within South African waters. 
• The impact of climate change on Spinner Dolphins. 

Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Use information dispensed by the South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative (SASSI) to make good choices when buying fish in shops and restaurants, e.g. wwfsa.mobi, FishMS 0794998795. 
• Report sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iNaturalist and MammalMAP) to help with mapping geographical distribution. 
• Report any stranding reports to the relevant local authorities. 

Bibliography

Amir, O. A., Jiddawi, N. S., and Berggren, P. 2005. The occurrence and distribution of dolphins in Zanzibar, Tanzania, with comments on the differences between two species of Tursiops. Western Indian Ocean Journal of Marine Science 4(1):85-93. 

Archer, F. I. 2002. Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba. In: W. F. Perrin, B. Wersig and J. G. M. Thewissen (eds), Encyclopedia of marine mammals, pp. 1201-1203. Academic Press. 

Archer, F. I. and Perrin, W. F. 1999. Stenella coeruleoalba. Mammalian Species 603: 1-9. 

Barlow, J. 1984. Reproductive seasonality in pelagic dolphins (Stenella spp.): implications for measuring rates. Report of the International Whaling Commission (Special Issue) 6: 191-198. 

Best, P. B. 2007. Whales and Dolphins of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, Cape Town. 338pp. 

Buscaino, G., Buffa, G., Sara, G., Bellante, A., Tonello, Jr. A.J., Hardt, F.A.S., Cremer, M.J., Bonanno, A., Cuttitta, A. and Mazzola, S. 2009. Pinger affects fish catch efficiency and damage to bottom gill nets related to bottlenose dolphins. Fisheries Science 75: 537-544. 

Cockcroft, V. G. 1990. Dolphin catches in the Natal shark nets, 1980-1988. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 20: 44-51. 

Cockcroft, V. G. and Krohn, R. 1994. Passive gear fisheries of the southwestern Indian and southeastern Atlantic oceans: an assessment of their possible impact on cetaceans. Reports of the International Whaling Commission, Special Issue 15: 317-328. 

DeMaster, D. P., C. W. Fowler, S. L. Perry and M. F. Richlen. 2001. Predation and competition: the impact of fisheries on marine mammal populations over the next one hundred years. Journal of Mammalogy 82(3): 641-651. 

Dolar, M. L. L., Walker, W. A., Kooyman, G. L. and Perrin, W. F. 2003. Comparative feeding ecology of spinner dolphins (Stenella longirostris) and Fraser’s dolphins (Lagenodelphis hosei) in the Sulu Sea. Marine Mammal Science 19(1): 1-19. 

Donahue, M. A. and Edwards, E. F. 1996. An annotated bibliography of available literature regarding cetacean interactions with tuna purse seine fisheries outside of the eastern tropical Pacific. Southwest Fisheries Science Center Administrative Report 96-20: 46 pp. 

Findlay KP, Best PB, Ross GJB, Cockcroft VG. 1992. The distribution of small odontocete cetaceans off the coasts of South Africa and Namibia. South African Journal of Marine Science 12: 237-270. 

Findlay KP. 1989. The distribution of cetaceans off the coast of South Africa and South West Africa/Namibia. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa. 

Fitch JE, Brownell RL. 1968. Fish otoliths in cetacean stomachs and their importance in interpreting feeding habits. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada 25: 2561–2574. 

Fraser FC, Noble BA. 1970. Variation of pigmentation in Meyer’s dolphin, Stenella coeruleoalba (Meyer). Investigations on Cetacea 2: 147–164. 

Hall MA, Boyer SD. 1989. Estimates of incidental mortality of dolphins in the eastern Pacific fishery for tropical tunas in 1987. Reports of the International Whaling Commission 39: 321–322. 

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