Overview

Eubalaena australis – (Desmoulins, 1822)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – ARTIODACTYLA – BALAENIDAE – Eubalaena – australis 

Common Names: Southern Right Whale (English), Suidelike Noordkapper (Afrikaans), Baleia Franca Austral (Portuguese), Baleine Australe (French), Ballena Franca Austral (Spanish; Castilian)
Synonyms: Balaena antarctica (Lesson 1828), Balaena antipodarum (Gray 1843), Balaena australis (Desmoulins 1822), Balaena capensis (Gray 1868), Balaena hectori (Gray 1874), Eubalaena capensis (Gray 1866) 

Taxonomic Note:  

Previously Rice (1998) classified all right whales across all oceans as a single species within the genus Balaena, along with the Bowhead Whale (B. mysticetus). However, since right whales seldom venture into equatorial regions, northern and southern hemisphere populations are spatially separated from one another. Thus, the Southern Right Whale is widely acknowledged as a distinct species from its relatives in the northern hemisphere. Based on genetic analyses, three distinct phylogenetic species of right whale have been identified with distributions that do not overlap (Rosenbaum et al. 2000). These are the North Atlantic (Eubalaena glacialis) and North Pacific (Eubalaena japonica) species which are separated by continental landmasses, and a single southern hemisphere species, the Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) (Rosenbaum et al. 2000). This classification is currently accepted by the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (IWC 2004), as well as the Convention on Migratory Species. 

Red List Status: LC – Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) 

Assessment Information

Assessors: Vermeulen, E.¹, Purdon, J.^1,2, Shabangu, F.W.^1,3 & da Silva, J.⁴ 

Reviewer: Plön, S.⁵ 

Institutions: ¹Mammal Research Institute Whale Unit, University of Pretoria, ²TUT Nature Conservation, ³Department of Forestries, Fisheries and the Environment, ⁴South African National Biodiversity Institute, ⁵University of Cape Town

Previous Assessor: Peters, I. 

Previous Reviewer: Barendse, J. 

Previous Contributors: Child, M.F., Relton, C., Preston-Whyte, F., Elwen, S., Findlay, K., Meyer, M., Oosthuizen, H. & Plön, S. 

Assessment Rationale 

Within the assessment region, the Southern Right Whale population is increasing, and recent ranges expand into historical parts of its range, suggesting healthy population dynamics. Population numbers are no longer decreasing thanks to the IWC’s moratorium on Right Whale hunting since 1935, followed by the cessation of illegal Soviet captures in 1972. Areas of reduced anthropogenic disturbance located in sheltered coastal waters, such as the De Hoop Marine Protected Area (MPA), may contribute to a continued stable population growth rate. Population trends within the assessment region have been estimated through individual sighting histories of reproductive females (from photo-identification images taken during aerial surveys). Total population size for the Assessment Region was estimated in 2020 at 6,470 (± 285 standard error) individuals with an annual population growth rate projected at 6.5% (Brandao et al. 2023). No major threats have been identified that could cause rapid population decline. However, there has been an increase in calving intervals observed in the population since 2010 (Brandao et al. 2023) as well as decreased maternal body conditions (Vermeulen et al. 2023b). These changes have been identified as indicative of reduced prey availability at high latitude foraging grounds in response to climate change (van den Berg et al. 2021; Germishuizen et al. 2024). The last available global population estimate dates from 2009 and was assessed as 13,611 individuals based on a 7.5% annual increase (IWC 2013). This result was based on an estimated generation time of 29 years. Although still scarce relative to its historic abundance (less than 10%; IWC 2013), no major factors seem to be threatening Southern Right Whale populations. It is therefore listed as Least Concern.

Regional population effects: This Southern Hemisphere species exhibits seasonal migration and is wide-ranging. There are no barriers to dispersal, thus rescue effects are possible. 

Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended Citation: Vermeulen E, Purdon J, Shabangu FW & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Eubalaena australis. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range

Across the Southern Hemisphere, Southern Right Whales have a circumpolar distribution, present within the South Atlantic, South Pacific and Indian Oceans. Similar to most other mysticete species, Southern Right Whales usually exhibit seasonal migrations southwards in summer to (sub-)Antarctic waters where they feed predominately on Euphausiids and copepods (Tormosov et al. 1998), and northwards in winter (as far as about 20°S) for calving and nursing.

In summer, Southern Right Whales are commonly located between 40°S and 50°S (Ohsumi and Kasamatsu 1986); however, they have been reported as far south as 65°S (Bannister et al. 1999, IWC 2007), and around South Georgia and South Sandwich Islands in the southern Atlantic Ocean (Kennedy et al. 2023; Vermeulen et al. 2023a). These sightings from the Antarctic to the sub-Antarctic (or grounds associated with sub-Antarctic or subtropical convergence zone), do not necessarily signify a range expansion, but rather new information derived from satellite tagging (Vermeulen et al. 2023a, Germishuizen, 2025).

During winter months, the species moves northwards towards coastlines of continents and islands, mainly for calving. Nursery grounds have been identified close to the shores off the southern regions of Australia and New Zealand, especially the Auckland and Campbell Islands (Carroll et al. 2011, 2014, Bannister 2018, Smith et al. 2019, Watson et al. 2021), as well as off the east coast of South America (Cooke et al. 2021) and around southern Africa (Richards 2009, Best et al. 2001). To a lesser extent, they have also been documented off the coasts of Chile, Peru, Tristan da Cunha, and the east coast of Madagascar (IWC 2001, Rosenbaum et al. 2001).

Within the assessment region, this species had a historical distribution northward to southern Angola. Historically, there were three winter concentrations, namely Walvis Bay in Namibia, the Cape of Good Hope in the west coast of South Africa, and up to Delagoa Bay (now Maputo Bay) in Mozambique (Richards 2009, Purdon et al. 2020). In winter, females with calves are concentrated on the southern African coastal calving ground from 18°30’E to 23°50’E (Best 2000). There is a recognised core area for calving females between Saint Sebastian Bay and Walker Bay (Elwen and Best 2004a, b, c). During summer, core areas occur throughout the Benguela (at low frequencies during autumn and winter; Barendse and Best 2014). The main behaviours recorded for whales along the west coast, up to St Helena Bay, is for feeding (Barendse and Best 2014). Migration patterns between low and high latitudes are no longer believed to be annual based on long-term individual sighting histories and satellite telemetry data, with evidence of individuals overwintering at high- and mid-latitude foraging grounds (Vermeulen, unpublished data) 

Population increases of the residual population are leading to repopulation of historical habitat, for example into Namibia, Mozambique and Madagascar. Photo-identification and genetic data are needed to determine whether the whales sighted off Mozambique (Banks et al. 2011) and Madagascar (Rosenbaum et al. 2001, Cerchio et al. 2022) are part of the South African population or the remains of the historic Indian Ocean population (IWC 2013). Also, shore-based observation along the South African west coast suggests that there are animals moving from a  more northern region, but research coverage north of St Helena Bay is nearly non-existent (Barendse and Best 2014). 

Additionally, Southern Right Whales have been seen sporadically at sub-Antarctic Marion Island, a South African territory (Postma et al. 2011), which is part of the Prince Edward Islands MPA, and movement has been recorded between South Africa and Marion Island (Best and Peters 2011). 

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): 400 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): 0 

Depth Zone: Epipelagic 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical, Antarctic, Australasian, Neotropical 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Country	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
Antarctica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Argentina	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Australia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bouvet Island	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Brazil	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Chile	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Falkland Islands (Malvinas)	Extant	Native	–	Resident
French Southern Territories	Extant	Native	–	Resident
French Southern Territories -> Kerguelen	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Gabon	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Madagascar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mauritius	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mozambique	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Namibia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
New Zealand	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Peru	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Réunion	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha -> Tristan da Cunha	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands -> South Georgia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Uruguay	Extant	Native	–	Resident

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: All LMEs in the Southern Hemisphere (Humboldt Current LME, Patagonian Shelf LME, Southeast South American Shelf LME, Agulhas Current LME, Benguela Current LME, Australian Shelf LMEs, and New Zealand Shelf LME) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
41. Atlantic – southwest	Extant	Native	–	Resident
47. Atlantic – southeast	Extant	Native	–	Resident
48. Atlantic – Antarctic	Extant	Native	–	Resident
51. Indian Ocean – western	Extant	Native	–	Resident
57. Indian Ocean – eastern	Extant	Native	–	Resident
58. Indian Ocean – Antarctic	Extant	Native	–	Resident
81. Pacific – southwest	Extant	Native	–	Resident
87. Pacific – southeast	Extant	Native	–	Resident

Climate change

As capital breeders, Southern Right Whales rely on seasonal energy reserves for reproduction (see Jonsson 1997), and female body condition plays a critical role in the success of the reproductive cycle (Christiansen et al. 2018). The success of building such energy reserves is in turn reliant on prey availability at high latitude foraging grounds, which is strongly linked with climatic and oceanographic processes. The impact of changes on these processes on the trophic ecology of oceanic predators is relatively well documented (e.g., Forcada et al. 2005, Fraser and Hofmann 2003, Tulloch et al. 2019). Especially for Southern Right Whales, various studies have indicated a decreased reproductive output correlated to reduced prey availability due to large-scale climatic drivers, like El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and Southern Annular Mode (SAM) (Leaper et al. 2006, Seyboth et al. 2016). Agrelo et al (2021) further showed a reduction in adult female survival probability with increasing intensity of El Niño.

Within the Assessment region, there is also evidence of climate change impacting on the Southern Right Whale population that calves off the western Cape coast. A recent study showed large scale environmental changes in the seasonal sea ice zone in important foraging grounds for Southern Right Whales that calve off the South African coast (Germishuizen et al. 2024). These coincide temporally with population-level changes, including (1) a decrease in the population’s reproductive success (Brandao et al. 2023), (2) a reduced maternal body condition (Vermeulen et al. 2023b), (3) a northward shift in foraging location (van den Berg et al. 2021) and (4) a changed migration pattern (Vermeulen et al. 2023a) resulting in strong fluctuations in coastal prevalence (Vermeulen and Wilkinson 2024). The combination of these results indicates the sensitivity of Southern Right Whales to environmental variability in their foraging grounds and the risk that climate change poses to continued population recovery post-whaling. Purdon et al. (2020) also noted that in the assessment area, climate change stressors, which include increasing sea surface temperature, ocean acidification and rising sea levels pose high risks to Southern Right Whales. Rising sea surface temperatures may restrict areas where Southern Right Whales are able to calve as they occur in waters less than 20 ◦C (Purdon et al. 2020). Their thick blubber layer prevents them from inhabiting warmer waters. It was also noted that ocean acidification and sea level rise increased throughout the assessment area, with the highest trends along the west and south coast. Ocean acidification may affect phytoplankton and zooplankton, in turn affecting top marine predators (Simmonds and Isaac, 2007), like the Southern Right Whale. Rising sea levels may increase the runoff of chemical pollution from land-based activities, affecting coastal areas where Southern Right Whales calve (Simmonds and Isaac, 2007). 

Population

The most recent assessment of Southern Right Whale populations was conducted by the IWC in 2011 (IWC 2013). Populations were significantly depleted by commercial whaling; however, since then, four breeding populations off New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and the east coast of South America have all shown strong recovery. 

Although some illegal Soviet whaling during the 1960s impeded population recovery, subsequently populations appear to have increased. Based on a 7.5% annual increase in 1997, the estimated global population abundance was 13,611 individuals in 2009 (IWC 2013). However, this global population size is likely still less than 20% of historic levels (IWC 2013). 

Within the assessment region, the southern African coast is considered to be one breeding assemblage of Southern Right Whales. In 2020 the total population that overwinters off the southern African coast was estimated at 6,470 animals, of which 2,092 were thought to be reproducing females (Brandão et al. 2023). The annual population growth rate within the assessment region is estimated at 6.5% (Brandão et al. 2023). The estimated generation length is 29 years (Taylor et al. 2007).  

Current population trend: Increasing  

Continuing decline in mature individuals: No  

Number of mature individuals in population: 2,092 mature females estimated in South African waters in 2020, but the overall mature population is unknown.   

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown  

Severely fragmented: No 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Number of Subpopulations: 5

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population Genetics

Southern Right Whales occur globally in six breeding populations with some level of genetic differentiation, including populations calving off the coasts of (1) Argentina, Uruguay and Brazil, (2) South Africa and Namibia, (3) Mozambique and Madagascar, (4) Australia, (5) New Zealand and (6) Chile and Peru. Four of these breeding populations show strong recovery post-whaling with doubling times between 10-12 years (Bannister et al. 2001, 2016; Cooke et al. 2001, 2015; Best et al. 2001, Brandão et al. 2013, Jackson et al. 2016). However, breeding populations of Chile/Peru and Mozambique/Madagascar remain at very low numbers with no clear evidence of recovery.  

One population is known within the assessment region (Population maintained indicator is therefore 1.0); however, its effective population size is unknown, and caution should be taken to estimate it based on counts given the previous population bottleneck as a result of whaling. While the breeding population has grown, it may have experienced increased levels of inbreeding, which could result in lower estimates than estimates derived from count data and applying a conversion ratio of 0.1-0.3 (6i.e., 74-1941).  

Habitats and ecology

Since the cessation of whaling, Southern Right Whales have been extensively studied on the three major breeding populations which calve off South America, Australia, and South Africa (e.g., Payne 1986, Bannister 2001, Best et al. 2001). In the Assessment Area, Southern Right Whales are often seen in cow/calf pairs or small groups within sheltered bays of the Western Cape during the winter months and are frequently observed performing spectacular aerial displays. During the summer months, Southern Right Whale usually migrate to mid-to high latitudes as far south as 64°S (Tormosov et al. 1998). When foraging north of 40°S, Southern Right Whales feed mostly on copepods, while further south (beyond 50°S), their diet consists mostly of Euphausiids, and between these latitudes their diet is made up of a mixture of the two (Tormosov et al. 1998). Despite high-latitude feeding (e.g., Vermeulen et al. 2023a), in the past two decades, a northward shift has been observed in the South African population, with increased foraging effort at mid-latitudes (van den Berg et al. 2021; Derville et al. 2023). Within the Assessment Area, Southern Right Whales are also known to forage in the Benguela Upwelling System along the South African west coast during the summer months, with documented movements between the west and south coasts (Barendse and Best 2014). There are also some movements of individuals recorded between South Africa and Namibia (Roux et al. 2011), and it is likely that maternally directed site fidelity to migratory routes, feeding and breeding sites is a determining factor. Additionally, passive acoustic monitoring off the west coast of South Africa shows that Southern Right Whale calls can be intermittently detected throughout the year, with peak call presence in spring around October (Shabangu et al. 2021).

Females usually give birth at three-year intervals. However, this period has lengthened in recent years to an average of 4 to 5 years (Brandao et al. 2023) likely due to poorer feeding conditions and reduced maternal body condition (Vermeulen et al. 2023b). Most calves are born between June and October, with a peak in August (Best 1994). More recent work using molecular and isotopic analyses has indicated cultural (maternal) transferred fidelity to nursery grounds (Valenzuela et al. 2009), although there have been documented movements between different breeding populations (Pirzl et al. 2009, Vermeulen et al. 2023a, Vermeulen et al. 2024).

Ecosystem and cultural services: Marine mammals integrate and reflect ecological variation across large spatial and long temporal scales, and therefore they are prime sentinels of marine ecosystem change; migratory mysticete whales may be used to investigate broad-scale shifts in ecosystems (Moore 2008). 

The Southern Right Whale is a definite flagship species for conservation and nature-based tourism in South Africa, for example, it is the subject of the Hermanus Whale Festival, symbol of the Overberg Municipal District, and the motivation for the Whale Trail in De Hoop Nature Reserve.  

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Habitat	Season	Suitability	Major Importance?
9.1. Marine Neritic -> Marine Neritic – Pelagic	–	Suitable	Yes
10.1. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Epipelagic (0-200m)	–	Suitable	Yes

Life History 

Generation Length: 18.1 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified:  8 years 

Age at Maturity: Male: 10 years 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: 1240 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: 1,000-12,000 

Longevity: ~130 years (Breed et al. 2024) 

Average Reproductive Age: 9 years 

Maximum Size (in cms): 1,700 

Size at Birth (in cms): 460-600 

Gestation Time:  approx 16 months (Shuttleworth et al. 2025) 

Reproductive Periodicity: 3 years 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: One calf 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Breeding Strategy 

Does the species lay eggs?  No 

Does the species give birth to live young:  Yes 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis:  No 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage?  No 

Does the species require water for breeding?  Yes 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: Random and directional in some instances  

Congregatory: No, but form small groups of 2 to 10 individuals during mating. 

Systems 

System: Marine 

General Use and Trade Information

This species was specifically targeted during the periods of major commercial whaling but is no longer harvested. There may still be some informal use of baleen and whale bones collected from stranded animals for artistic or ornamental purposes, or for use as educational exhibits in museums.

The value of shore-based whale-watching in South Africa in 1995 was estimated at about R5 million indirect expenditure (Findlay 1997). In 2008 it was estimated that there were > 500,000 whale watchers in South Africa spending > 2.7 million $US directly and > 58.7 million $US indirectly (O’Connor et al. 2009). The boat-based whale-watching industry (based on whale-watcher numbers) has increased by 14% per annum between 1998 and 2008. It is important to note that although these economic numbers are not just for Southern Right Whales, they are major contributors to the overall whale-watching industry in South Africa.  

Subsistence:	Rationale:	Local Commercial:	Further detail including information on economic value if available:
No	–	–	–

National Commercial Value: Yes 

International Commercial Value: Yes 

End Use	Subsistence	National	International	Other (please specify)
1. Food – human	true	true	true	–

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? No 

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified) 

Threats

Right Whales were specifically targeted by commercial Southern Hemisphere whaling since its commencement in the 17th century, and during the 18th and 19th centuries exploitation of these species by American and European whaling increased substantially. There is a great deal of uncertainty over the exact number of animals killed during this period; however, between 1770 and 1900 there is a conservative estimate of 150,000 individuals killed globally, and between 48,000 and 60,000 of these were believed to have been killed during the 1930s alone. At the beginning of the 20th century (the start of the modern whaling era), Southern Right Whales were rare, thus only 1,600 were caught before they were formally protected in 1935 (IWC, 2013).
 
The Southern Hemisphere population (Southern Right Whales) was estimated at 55,000–70,000 individuals in 1770 but is believed to have dropped to only 300 by the 1920s (Jackson et al. 2008). From American import records of whale oil and baleen, Best (1987) estimated that nearly 60,000 Southern Right Whales were caught by American commercial whalers during the 19th century. Following their protection in 1935, it is presumed that their numbers increased until the 1960s when 3,212 individuals were illegally hunted by Soviet fleets between 1951 and 1970 (Tormosov et al. 1998), thus delaying their recovery. 

Currently the species is subjected to entanglement (mostly in fishing gear, including shark nets, trap fisheries) and ship strikes, but neither have any measurable impact on the rate of recovery (Vermeulen et al. 2021). Ranked threats are:  

1. Climate change can be regarded as the major threat to the species. Population-level changes observed in the past decade, including an increase in calving intervals (Brandao et al. 2023), altered foraging strategies (van den Berg et al. 2021), changed migration patterns (Vermeulen et al. 2023a) and a reduced maternal body condition (Vermeulen et al. 2023b) is likely linked to an alteration in prey availability at high latitude- foraging grounds. Recent research has indicated a link with drastic sea ice declines in the high-latitudes south of South Africa (Germishuizen et al. 2024). Also in South America, correlations have been observed between breeding success and survival of the species and sea surface temperature anomalies foraging grounds (Leaper et al. 2006, Seyboth et al. 2016, Agrelo et al. 2021).
2. An additional emerging threat to this species as a result of climate change includes heightened disease transmission and changes in energy expenditure (thus affecting lactation and calf rearing).
3. Entanglement increasing with population but not accelerating. Humpback and Southern Right Whales are the two large whale species in southern African waters most likely to become entangled in nets (Meÿer et al. 2011). Reported incidents of Southern Right Whale entanglement in nets other than shark nets increased between 1990 and 2009; however, this was accounted for by the 7% annual increase in population abundance (Best et al. 2001). Most entanglements occur between Cape Town Harbour and Cape Agulhas, with another area of increased incidences on the KwaZulu-Natal coast. Most entanglements occur with either rock lobster fishing gear or bather protection nets (Vermeulen et al. 2022). However, the incidence of entanglements decreased post-2007, likely due to the overall decreased presence of the species on the South African coast (Vermeulen et al. 2022). Nonetheless, although entanglement mortality does not appear to be hindering population growth, increased population numbers are expected to result in increased levels of anthropogenic interaction, thus requiring mitigation improvements.
4. The severity of small boat ship strikes increased in the period 1963 – 1997, especially with calves on nursery grounds (Best et al. 2001). Ship strikes from fishing boats also increased (Best et al. 2011). However, this trend reversed post-2007, likely related to the overall decreased presence of the species along the South African coast (Vermeulen et al. 2022). Most ship-strikes occurred in the area between Cape Town Harbour and Cape Agulhas, an area with increased geographic overlap between Southern Right Whale occurrence and shipping activity (Vermeulen et al. 2022). Purdon et al. 2020 also noted that ship strikes were the biggest threat to Southern Right Whales in the South African mainland exclusive economic zone. This threat is concentrated along the south coast where Southern Right Whales are present in high concentrations during the austral winter. 
5. Anthropogenic underwater noise is another unquantified threat, with dense shipping lanes and an increase in seismic surveys in the South African EEZ. This noise source likely increases the stress levels and alters the communication strategies of whales as observed for other baleen whales in South African waters (Shabangu et al. 2022).
6. An emerging and potentially severe threat in South African and Namibian waters is allocation of rights for bulk sediment mining for benthic phosphates (Benkenstein 2014). The disturbance of sediments and extraction of minerals could potentially impact on the dynamics of nutrient cycling and productivity in yet unknown ways. 
7. Current levels of ecotourism are sustainable, but increases may cause disturbance to calves at nursery sites.
8. On Argentina’s important Península Valdés calving ground, parasitism by Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus, which gouge skin and blubber from the whales’ backs, has been increasing rapidly in recent years and may eventually drive the whales elsewhere (Rowntree et al. 1998). These gull attacks may play a contributing factor in the spike in mortality of Southern Right Whale calves since 2003 (IWC 2013). This appears to be a learned behaviour that has spread through the gull population, and which is likely exacerbated by the elevated gull populations provisioned by the prevalence of uncovered disposal sites for fishery and other waste. This localised threat is used as a warning to closely monitor other populations. 

Conservation

Globally, Right Whale species have been formally protected from commercial whaling since 1935; however, this ruling has only been conformed to since the beginning of the 1970s, when illegal whaling by Soviet fleets was ended, and land stations in South America no longer received Right Whales. Additionally, this species is listed in Appendix I of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS). 

The Southern Right Whale populations form one of South Africa’s best long-term datasets for a conservation success story of how ending harvesting can restore populations, and it is highly recommended that monitoring of the population is continued. For example, the Mammal Research Institute Whale Unit of the University of Pretoria is currently involved in monitoring the Southern Right Whale nursery grounds from Nature’s Valley to Muizenberg on an annual basis. Within the assessment region, Southern Right Whale calving grounds enjoy added protection in Hermanus, De Hoop and the Breede River Mouth areas, although there are other protected areas also utilised by the species: Table Mountain National Park MPA, West Coast National Park (feeding), Stillbay MPA, Goukamma MPA, Robberg MPA, Tsitsikamma MPA and the proposed Greater Addo MPA. Assessment of critical habitats such as nursing and feeding grounds should be considered.

In 2008, it became mandatory for vessels ≥ 65 feet (19.8 m) to travel at speeds of 10 knots or less in 10 seasonally managed areas (SMAs) off the east coast of the USA in attempts to reduce vessel strikes of large whales, in particular North Atlantic Right Whales and Humpback Whales. Laist et al. (2014) determined that this mitigation effort is effective in reducing vessel strikes of right whales within the designated SMAs. In the future, South Africa could trial reducing boat speeds as an intervention to reduce boat strikes in hotspot areas (for example, harbours), which will in turn reduce underwater noise produced by vessels as this noise decreases with vessel speed.

Recommendations for managers and practitioners: 

• Continued systematic monitoring of the population 
• Regulate boat traffic in harbours and other important areas 
• Device ways to reduce fishing gear entanglements 
• Enforce penalties on ecotourism operators who breach code of conduct 
• Restrict ecotourism operators to the current level, continuing to protect key habitat like Saint Sebastian Bay and De Hoop Marine Protected Area 

Research priorities: 

• Assess the impact of climate change on population dynamics, survival, health, and calf rearing 
• Continued research into inter-population relationships 
• Explore importance of South Africa as a source population for re-occupation of former ranges in Namibian and Mozambique waters through photo-identification and molecular data 
• Evaluate the impact of underwater noise on population health and underwater communication  

Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Citizens should help to enforce whale watching codes of conducts by reporting illegal activities 
• Report strandings and entanglements to relevant authorities 
• Whale-watching vessels can collect photo-identification data and make opportunistic behavioural observations 
• Continue surveys and educate the public regarding whale-watching, to minimise disturbance and marine pollution. An educated public can be watchdogs for compliance during expeditions (audience effect) and help to enforce codes of conduct. Codes of conduct should be displayed on ships and made available to the public 
• Uploading location sightings to virtual museum platforms will help in determining the spatial and temporal distribution of the population 

Bibliography

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