Overview

Kogia breviceps – (Blainville, 1838)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – ARTIODACTYLA – KOGIIDAE – Kogia – breviceps 

Common Names: Pygmy Sperm Whale, Lesser Cachalot, Lesser Sperm Whale (English), Dwergpotvis (Afrikaans), Cachalot pygmée (French), Cachalote cabeza chica (Spanish; Castilian), Cachalote pigmeo (Spanish; Castilian)
Synonyms: Kogia breviceps Blainville, 1838 

Taxonomic Note: 
The genus Kogia contains two species, the Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps) and Dwarf Sperm Whale (Kogia sima), with no subspecies recognised (Committee on Taxonomy 2021). The cryptic behavior and similar external morphology of the two species mean that records are often not displayed at the species level and are instead combined into Kogia spp. It has been suggested that K. sima may consist of two parapatric species occupying the Atlantic and Indo-Pacific Oceans, based on evidence from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene (Chivers et al. 2005). K. breviceps and K. sima are clearly distinguished genetically, but full recognition of a putative third Kogia spp. awaits further supporting evidence (Plön et al. 2023: Chivers et al. 2005). 

Red List Status: DD– Data Deficient 

Assessment Information

Assessor: Plön, S.¹ 

Reviewer: Patel, T.² 

Institutions: ¹ University of Cape Town, ²Endangered Wildlife Trust

Previous Assessors & Reviewers: Plön, S. & Relton, C. 

Previous Contributors: Elwen, S., Findlay, K., Meÿer, M., Oosthuizen, H., Child, MF. & Taylor et al. (2008a, 2008b) 

Assessment Rationale 

This species is naturally uncommon and there are no regional estimates of population size or trends (Plön, 2022). However, as it is a deep-diving species (up to 800 m), the effects of marine noise pollution should be monitored (although thus far no strandings have been linked to this threat), and we urge more research into the severity of this threat within South African waters. Additionally, plastic pollution should be recognised as an increasing emerging threat, as they are known to fatally ingest plastic bags mistaken for squid. While their offshore distributions do not overlap with many major threats in the assessment region, their natural scarcity and presumed low population numbers make them vulnerable to minor threats, which may be increasing in severity in the assessment region. Thus, in line with the global assessments, we list this species as Data Deficient and urge more systematic monitoring and analysis to determine population sizes and trends within the assessment region.

Regional population effects: Pygmy Sperm Whales occur extensively in pelagic waters of tropical and temperate regions, and although their movement patterns are largely unknown, no barriers to dispersal have been recognised (Plön et al. 2023), thus rescue effects are considered possible. 

Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citation: Plön S. 2025. A conservation assessment of Kogia breviceps. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range

Both Pygmy Sperm Whales and Dwarf Sperm Whales are widely distributed and inhabit deep tropical, subtropical and temperate waters throughout all oceans (Plön, 2022; Plön and Baird, 2022; McAlpine 2002). However, the Pygmy Sperm Whale seems to occur more commonly in cooler temperate regions in comparison to the Dwarf Sperm Whale, which seemingly prefers warmer waters (Plön and Baird, 2022; Caldwell & Caldwell 1989). The distributional ranges of Kogia spp. are poorly known, and most records originate from strandings or occasionally as individuals captured in small fisheries, rather than live sightings at sea (Plön, 2022; Nagorsen 1985; Caldwell & Caldwell 1989; McAlpine 2002). This may, however, be attributed to their cryptic nature and affiliation for pelagic regions, rather than low population abundances, particularly since a number of recent studies report extensive observations of K. breviceps in the wild off Hawaii (Baird, 2005) and off the Canary Islands (Vidal et al. 2024). The Pygmy Sperm Whale is thought to predominantly reside in pelagic regions, beyond the continental shelf edge (Plön, 2022; Ross 1979). 

Within the assessment region, stranding records of Pygmy Sperm Whales suggest that this species occurs from 22°S on South Africa’s west coast (18°33’ S on the west coast of Southern Africa (Elwen et al. 2013) to 33°42’S on the east coast (Plön et al. 2023; Findlay et al. 1992). Prior to 1977, Ross (1979) documented strandings of 42 Dwarf Sperm Whales along South Africa’s coastline from Saldanha Bay to East London. These and additional records suggest that this species is restricted to South Africa’s southern coast between 17.8°E and 28°E (Ross 1979; Findlay et al. 1992), and an outlying record from KwaZulu-Natal is thought to be attributed to unusual environmental conditions (Ross et al. 1985). The lack of records northwards from Saldanha Bay and along the east coast of South Africa suggests that Dwarf Sperm Whales may prefer the mixed-water conditions, where the Benguela and Agulhas Currents mix (Ross 1984). Due to the rarity of sightings at sea, distribution in the subregion has to be largely deduced from the incidence of strandings (Best, 2007), which have occurred throughout the year in the assessment region.  

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical, Australasian, Indomalayan, Nearctic, Neotropical, Oceanian, Palearctic 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Country	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
American Samoa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Angola	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Anguilla	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Antigua and Barbuda	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Argentina	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Aruba	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Australia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Australia -> Tasmania	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bahamas	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bangladesh	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Barbados	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Belgium	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Belize	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Benin	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bermuda	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Brazil	Extant	Native	–	Resident
British Indian Ocean Territory	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Brunei Darussalam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cabo Verde	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cambodia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cameroon	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Canada	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Canada -> Nova Scotia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cayman Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Chile	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Chile -> Juan Fernández Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
China	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Christmas Island	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cocos (Keeling) Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Colombia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Comoros	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Congo	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Congo, The Democratic Republic of the	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cook Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Costa Rica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Cuba	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Curaçao	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Côte d’Ivoire	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Denmark	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Djibouti	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Dominica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Dominican Republic	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Ecuador	Extant	Native	–	Resident
El Salvador	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Equatorial Guinea	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Eritrea	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Seasonal Occurrence Uncertain
Fiji	Extant	Native	–	Resident
France	Extant	Native	–	Resident
French Guiana	Extant	Native	–	Resident
French Polynesia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Gabon	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Gambia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Germany	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Ghana	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Gibraltar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Grenada	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guadeloupe	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guatemala	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guernsey	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guinea	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guinea-Bissau	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Guyana	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Haiti	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Honduras	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Hong Kong	Extant	Native	–	Resident
India	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Indonesia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Iran, Islamic Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Ireland	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Isle of Man	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Jamaica	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Japan	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Japan -> Honshu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Jersey	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Kenya	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Kiribati	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Korea, Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Liberia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Macao	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Madagascar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Malaysia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Maldives	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Marshall Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Martinique	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mauritania	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mauritius	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mayotte	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mexico	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Micronesia, Federated States of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Montserrat	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Morocco	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Mozambique	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Myanmar	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Namibia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Nauru	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Netherlands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
New Caledonia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
New Zealand	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Nicaragua	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Nigeria	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Niue	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Norfolk Island	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Northern Mariana Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Oman	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Pakistan	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Palau	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Panama	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Papua New Guinea	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Peru	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Philippines	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Pitcairn	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Portugal	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Portugal -> Azores	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Puerto Rico	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Russian Federation	Presence Uncertain	Native	–	Seasonal Occurrence Uncertain
Réunion	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Barthélemy	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Kitts and Nevis	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Lucia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Martin (French part)	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Pierre and Miquelon	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Samoa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sao Tome and Principe	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Senegal	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Seychelles	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sierra Leone	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Singapore	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sint Maarten (Dutch part)	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Solomon Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Somalia	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa -> Eastern Cape Province	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa -> KwaZulu-Natal	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa -> Northern Cape Province	Extant	Native	–	Resident
South Africa -> Western Cape	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Spain	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Sri Lanka	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Suriname	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Taiwan, Province of China	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Tanzania, United Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Thailand	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Timor-Leste	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Togo	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Tokelau	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Tonga	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Trinidad and Tobago	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Turks and Caicos Islands	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Tuvalu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United Arab Emirates	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America -> Hawaiian Is.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
United States of America -> Washington	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Uruguay	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Vanuatu	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Venezuela, Bolivarian Republic of	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Viet Nam	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Virgin Islands, British	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Virgin Islands, U.S.	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Wallis and Futuna	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Western Sahara	Extant	Native	–	Resident
Yemen	Extant	Native	–	Resident

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
21. Atlantic – northwest	Extant	Native	–	–
27. Atlantic – northeast	Extant	Native	–	–
31. Atlantic – western central	Extant	Native	–	–
34. Atlantic – eastern central	Extant	Native	–	–
41. Atlantic – southwest	Extant	Native	–	–
47. Atlantic – southeast	Extant	Native	–	–
51. Indian Ocean – western	Extant	Native	–	–
57. Indian Ocean – eastern	Extant	Native	–	–
61. Pacific – northwest	Extant	Native	–	–
67. Pacific – northeast	Extant	Native	–	–
71. Pacific – western central	Extant	Native	–	–
77. Pacific – eastern central	Extant	Native	–	–
81. Pacific – southwest	Extant	Native	–	–
87. Pacific – southeast	Extant	Native	–	–

Climate change

The impact of global climate change, and the associated effects of increased water temperature and CO₂ concentration on Kogia spp. is largely unknown; however, it is likely to have cascading effects on the movements and feeding ecology of these species (Learmonth et al. 2006). 

Population information

Abundance estimates of this species is often underestimated due to their offshore habitats, long and deep-diving behaviour and inconspicuous nature at the surface (Barlow 1999). Additionally, Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales are often confused during sightings, which further complicates any population assessments. Although no global population abundance estimates are available for the species, the sum of the available abundance estimates from various geographical regions is over 10,000 individuals, but because the surveys only covered a small fraction of the entire habitat, the total global abundance is likely much higher (Kiszka and Braulik 2020).  

However, the stranding frequency of K. breviceps in regions such as South Africa and the southeastern United States suggests they may be more common than sighting records would imply (Plön, 2022; Hodge et al. 2018). Similarly, although no regional population estimates exist for K. breviceps in the southern hemisphere, there appears to be substantial gene flow between stocks (Plön et al. 2023). The species is primarily known from stranding records, which are declining across the region. However, because the cause of strandings is largely unknown, it is unclear how this trend is reflective of the population.

The 3-generation period of the species is calculated as 36 years (Taylor et al. 2007), and, globally, a 30% reduction over three generations cannot be ruled out (Taylor et al. 2008a, 2008b). 

Current population trend: Unknown 

Continuing decline in mature individuals? Unknown 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Number of mature individuals in population: Unknown 

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown 

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown 

Severely fragmented: No 

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population genetics

Molecular evidence revealed extensive genetic mixing across the global distribution of this species indicating it is a single metapopulation (Plön et al., 2023). Given that no estimates of population size are available and no measure of effective population size (Ne) was conducted using the available genetic information, it is not possible to quantify the Ne 500 indicator.   

Habitats and ecology

Pygmy Sperm Whales inhabit deep waters over the continental shelf and slope (Plön, 2022; Ross 1979). Although some studies document some division between K. breviceps and K. sima in their preference for water depth, largely based on the analysis of stomach contents (Plön, 2004; Ross, 1979), Mullin et al. (1994) using aerial observations noted that in the Gulf of Mexico, both species occurred in waters between 400–600 m deep. These depths constituted the upper regions of the continental slope, which exhibited high concentrations of zooplankton (Baumgartner et al. 2001). Both species appear to feed over the deeper continental shelf and slope (Plön, 2022; Ross 1979).

Ross (1979) reported that Pygmy Sperm Whales may occur individually or in small groups of up to six animals in the assessment region. Although they are capable of rapid bursts in speed, they typically swim at about 5.5 km / h (Mörzer Bruyns 1971). While not commonly sighted at sea, Katona et al. (1983) reported that the species is easy to approach, as they often float on the surface of the water with much of their body exposed (Leatherwood & Reeves 1983).

The stomach contents of stranded Pygmy Sperm Whales contained the remains of deep-water cephalopods, suggesting that this species feeds at depths of up to 900 m (Plön, 2022). The majority of the diet of Kogia spp. consists of cephalopods, but they may also consume other prey, for example deep-sea fishes and shrimps (McAlpine et al. 1997; dos Santos & Haimovici 2001; S. Plön pers. comm.). In South African waters, Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales consumed at least 67 and 38 different prey species, respectively, and Pygmy Sperm Whales are likely to feed in deeper waters compared to Dwarf Sperm Whales (Plön 2004; Ross 1979).

Although little is known about the reproductive biology of Kogia spp., and no seasonality can be inferred, female and male K. breviceps from South Africa are estimated to reach sexual maturity at 2.6 m and 2.4 m, respectively (Plön, 2004).  Calves are born at an approximate length of 1.2 m (Plön, 2004). Surprisingly, an extremely high proportion (80%) of calves and foetuses were found to be male (Ross 1979).

Ecosystem and cultural services: Marine mammals integrate and reflect ecological variation across large spatial and long temporal scales, and therefore they are prime sentinels of marine ecosystem change (Moore 2008).

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Habitat	Season	Suitability	Major Importance?
10.1. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Epipelagic (0-200m)	–	Suitable	Yes
10.2. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Mesopelagic (200-1000m)	–	Suitable	Yes
10.3. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Bathypelagic (1000-4000m)	–	Suitable	Yes

Life History 

Generation Length: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: 5 yrs (Plön, 2004) 

Age at Maturity: Male: 2.5-5 yrs (Plön, 2004) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: 262 cm (Plön, 2004) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: 241-242 cm (Plön, 2004) 

Longevity: 23 yrs in females, 16 yrs in males (Plön, 2004) 

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified) 

Maximum Size (in cms): 324cm in females, 275cm in males (Plön, 2004) 

Size at Birth (in cms): 120cm (Plön, 2004) 

Gestation Time: 11-12 months (Plön, 2004) 

Reproductive Periodicity: Annual reproduction (Plön, 2004) 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: 1 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Does the species lay eggs? No 

Does the species give birth to live young: Yes 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: (Not specified) 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? (Not specified) 

Does the species require water for breeding? (Not specified) 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: (Not specified) 

Congregatory: (Not specified) 

Systems 

System: Marine 

 

General Use and Trade Information

Although this species is hunted at low levels in some parts of their range, there is no trade or use of the species within the assessment region. In other parts of the world, such as the Philippines, Kogia spp. are hunted for bait to be used in fisheries or meat for human consumption (Leatherwood et al. 1992; Anonymous 1996). Additionally, where they are caught accidentally in fisheries, such as gillnets, they may also be utilised for human consumption (Klinowska 1991; Muñoz-Hincapié et al. 1998). 

Subsistence:	Rationale:	Local Commercial:	Further detail including information on economic value if available:
Yes	–	–	–

National Commercial Value: Yes 

International Commercial Value: No 

End Use	Subsistence	National	International	Other (please specify)
1. Food – human	true	true	–	–

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified) 

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified) 

Threats

Although no major threats have been recognised for Kogia spp. within the assessment region, and the threats listed below are not likely to cause drastic population reduction on their own, they may result in slow, significant declines in the future, especially if the threats synergise.

Kogia spp. were not historically hunted commercially, but are currently hunted on a small-scale in regions such as Japan, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and the Lesser Antilles (Jefferson et al. 1993), and there are reports of sporadic accidental bycatch of Pygmy Sperm Whales in gillnet, longline and purse seine fisheries across the Northern Hemisphere (Jefferson et al. 1993; Barlow et al. 1997; Perez et al. 2001; Garrison 2007). No direct or indirect catches of Kogia species have been reported from South African waters, and Baird et al. (1996) suggests that direct and indirect catches of the Pygmy Sperm Whale are not expected to severely impact their population stability. 
 
The ingestion of plastic bags (which the animals possibly mistake for squid) is common among squid-eating cetaceans and has been documented for both Kogia species (for example, Stamper et al. 2006), and is considered to be relatively common among these species (Plön 2022; Plön & Baird 2022). Plastic pollution in the stomachs of cetaceans frequently hinders natural digestion of food resources, leading to gut-blockage, starvation, strandings and death (Caldwell & Caldwell 1989; Laist et al. 1999; S. Plön pers. obs.).  
 
As deep-diving species (similar to beaked whales), Pygmy and Dwarf Sperm Whales are presumably vulnerable to anthropogenic noise pollution, for example those produced by seismic surveys and sonar generated during naval operations (Cox et al. 2006; Wang & Yang 2006; Yang et al. 2008). A number of stranding events, which included Kogia spp., have been documented in Taiwan (Wang & Yang 2006; Yang et al. 2008), the Gulf of Mexico and off the east coast of Florida (Waring et al. 2006). Although, anthropogenic noise pollution is a possible cause of these stranding incidents, due to spatial and temporal associations, this assumption has not been confirmed (Hohn et al. 2006; Wang & Yang 2006; Yang et al. 2008). Marine noise pollution is thought to be intensifying within South African waters (Koper & Plön 2012). 

Conservation

K. brevicepsis listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). In the absence of further data, no specific conservation measures can be recommended for this species within the assessment region at present. Continued research is necessary into the impact of and interactions between threats, such as plastic and noise pollution, climate change and incidental bycatch in pelagic fisheries. Management plans should be developed as such data become avail.

Recommendations for managers and practitioners: 

• The interaction between Kogia spp. and gillnet, purse seine and longline fisheries requires ongoing monitoring, and regular records of bycatch should be collected by fishing operations. 

Research priorities: 

• Population size, distribution and trends of these species in South African waters.  
• Investigations into threats to these species, such as the impacts and severity of marine pollution (both plastics and noise) on populations. 

Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Use information dispensed by the South African Sustainable Seafood Initiative to make good choices when buying fish in shops and restaurants, e.g. wwfsa.mobi, FishMS 0794998795. 
• Save electricity and fuel to mitigate CO₂ emissions and hence, the rate of climate change. 
• Sightings data from pelagic commercial tourism operators may be valuable. 
• Report any strandings to the relevant local authorities. 

Bibliography

Baird, R. W. (2005). Sightings of dwarf (Kogia sima) and pygmy (K. breviceps) sperm whales from the main Hawaiian Islands. Pacific Science, 59, 461-466. 

Baird, R. W., Nelson, D., Lien, J. and Nagorsen, D. W. 1996. The status of the pygmy sperm whale, Kogia breviceps, in Canada. Canadian Field-Naturalist 110: 525-532. 

Barlow, J. 1999. Trackline detection probability for long-diving whales. In: G. W. Garner, S. C. Amstrup, J. L. Laake, B. J. F. Manley, L. L. McDonald and D. G. Robertson (eds), Marine mammal survey and assessment methods, pp. 209-221. Balkema Press, Netherlands. 

Barlow, J., Forney, K. A., Hill, K. A., Brownell Jr., R. L., Caretta, R. L., Demaster, D. P., Julian, D. P., Lowry, M. S., Ragen, M. S. and Reeves, R. R. 1997. U.S. Pacific marine mammal stock assessments: 1996. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC 248: 223 pp. 

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