Overview

Epomophorus crypturus – Peters, 1852

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – CHIROPTERA – PTEROPODIDAE – Epomophorus – crypturus 

Common Names: Peters’s Epauletted Fruit Bat, Smaller Epauletted Fruit Bat (English), Peters se Witkolvrugtevlermuis, Klein Vrugtevlermuis (Afrikaans)  
Synonyms: Epomophorus gambianus ssp. crypturus Peters, 1852 

Taxonomic Note: 
This taxon was previously included within Epomophorus gambianus. However, we follow Monadjem et al. (2020) and Simmons and Cirranello (2024) in recognising E. crypturus as a distinct species. Adult E. crypturus can be distinguished from sympatric E. wahlbergi by the presence of two post-dental palatal ridges (only one in E. wahlbergi) and its narrower muzzle (Taylor & Monadjem 2008). 

Red List Status: LC – Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1) 

Assessment Information

Assessors: Lötter, C.A.¹, Richardson, E.J.², Richards, L.R.³ & da Silva, J.M.⁴ 

Reviewer: Moir, M.⁵ 

Institutions: ¹Inkululeko Wildlife Services (Pty) Ltd, ²Richardson & Peplow Environmental, ³Durban Natural Science Museum, ⁴South African National Biodiversity Institute, ⁵Stellenbosch University 

Previous Assessors and Reviewers: Monadjem, A., Richards, L.R., Cohen, L., Jacobs, D., MacEwan, K., Schoeman, C., Sethusa, T. & Taylor, P. 

Previous Contributors: Roxburgh, L., Raimondo, D. & Nicholson, S.K.  

Assessment Rationale 

This species is listed as Least Concern due to its wide distribution within the savannah regions of South Africa and Eswatini (estimated extent of occurrence is 530,904 km²), its occurrence in several protected areas (including the Kruger National Park, Mapungubwe National Park, Entabeni Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, and The Island Nature Reserve) and its presumed large population size. The savannah biome is well protected within the assessment region, and this species can tolerate some habitat modification.  However, in the Eastern Cape, with increasing habitat loss and wind farm development, fatalities from wind turbines may become a severe threat to affected populations and must, therefore, be carefully monitored and mitigated.

Regional population effects: Common in the region with much dispersal between subpopulations within and outside of the assessment region. 

Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citation: Lötter CA, Richardson EJ, Richards LR & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Epomophorus crypturus. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range 

This species is widespread in southern Africa. Its distribution ranges from the southern parts of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, southern Tanzania, eastern Angola and northern Botswana to the southeastern coastline of South Africa. It has been recorded at elevations of up to 2,185 m above sea level, although it has mostly been collected between sea level and 1,500 m above sea level (Mickleburgh et al. 2008; Moir et al. 2020). In the assessment region, the species is recorded from Limpopo, Mpumalanga, KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape (Monadjem et al. 2020; Moir et al. 2020). The species also occurs in Eswatini but is absent from Lesotho (Monadjem et al. 2020). It appears to be absent from coastal forest in southern Mozambique (Monadjem et al. 2020). It is likely that the species has been overlooked in past inventories, especially along the eastern regions of the assessment region, owing to its external resemblance to E. wahlbergi. 

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Peters’s Epauletted Fruit Bat (Epomophorus crypturus) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: (Not specified) 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

FAO Marine Areas: (Not specified) 

Climate change

While no species-specific studies have been done, Arumoogum et al. (2019) found, using ensemble niche modelling, that abiotic variables associated with productivity (synergistic effects of temperature and rainfall) were the primary determinants of habitat suitability for the closely related Wahlberg’s Epauletted Fruit Bat (Epomophorus wahlbergi). If E. wahlbergi may become increasingly threatened with a possible increase in the frequency and duration of droughts within its distribution range, the same might apply to E. crypturus. 

All of the Pteropodids are susceptible to extreme weather conditions, especially heat waves (see, for example Matthew et al. 2022) and increased deaths associated with increasing frequency and severity of extreme weather events may seriously impact species numbers. 

Population Information

This species is widespread and abundant in the northeastern parts of the assessment region (namely the Limpopo and Mpumalanga provinces). Moir et al. (2020) reported a range extension of the species to coastal forests of the Eastern Cape of South Africa. It forms loose colonies of fewer than 100 individuals in each colony (Monadjem et al. 2020). It is well represented in museums, with over 160 records examined in Monadjem et al. (2010). It occurs sympatrically with E. wahlbergi, but usually one or the other species is numerically dominant (Monadjem et al. 2020, Moir et al. 2020).

Current population trend: Stable 

Continuing decline in mature individuals? No 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Number of mature individuals in population: Unknown 

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown.  

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown. As this species moves vast distances, defining subpopulations is difficult. 

Severely fragmented: No   

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population Genetics

No population genetic study has been conducted on this species; however, the distribution records could suggest the presence of two subpopulations within the assessment region (to the north and along the east coast of South Africa). This would need to be confirmed through a population genetic assessment.   

Habitats and ecology

This species is generally associated with dry savannah and riverine forest with fruit-bearing trees. It roosts singly or in small groups in the dense foliage of large, leafy trees and may travel several kilometres each night to reach fruiting trees (Monadjem et al. 2020). They may also come into towns and feed on crops and fruit trees (ACR 2015). It is associated with forest and forest-edge habitats, particularly riparian forest which extensively incises savannahs in the eastern part of the region. However, it appears to prefer drier conditions than E. wahlbergi, which may explain its apparent absence from coastal forests in Mozambique (Monadjem et al. 2020). 

It feeds on a wide variety of fruit and flowers (Smithers 1983), being ‘wasteful feeders’ by often discarding uneaten skins, pips, unchewed pulp and seeds on the ground below their feeding site. Fig trees appear to be favoured food resources; for example, in Kruger National Park, it specialises on the fruits of Ficus sycomorus (Bonaccorso et al. 2014), where mean foraging range and core use area changes significantly with season, year, and fig abundance (Bonaccorso et al. 2014). Where this species is sympatric with E. wahlbergi, differences in mating vocalisations may be used by both species to avoid cross-mating (Adams & Snode 2015). 

Ecosystem and cultural services: The role of frugivorous bats is crucial in ecosystems as these species perform key functions as pollinators and seed dispersers (Fujita & Tuttle 1991; Hodgkison et al. 2003). For example, Hodgkison et al. (2003) found that 13.7% of trees in a botanical survey of a 1 ha old-growth forest, were partially dependent on bats for pollination and seed dispersal. Several studies (Adams and Snode 2013; Bonaccorso et al. 2014; Aziz et al. 2021; Mphethe et al. 2023) have shown that epauletted fruit bats prefer wild fruits (to cultivated fruit), particularly, figs. Epomophorus bats are indeed key seed dispersers for fig trees (Ficus sycomorus and other spp.; Bonaccorso et al. 2014), which represent a keystone resource for numerous frugivores and other animals, and which are economically important trees in the African savannah. 

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Life History 

Generation Length: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Male: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: Total = 129.0 ±12.0 mm (Monadjem et al. 2020); Forearm length  

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: Total = 147.0 ±14.30 (Monadjem et al. 2020) 

Longevity: (Not specified) 

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified) 

Maximum Size (in cms): Females: Total length =148 mm; Males: Total length = 168 mm (Monadjem et al. 2020) 

Size at Birth (in cms): (Not specified) 

Gestation Time: (Not specified) 

Reproductive Periodicity: (Not specified) 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: (Not specified) 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Does the species lay eggs? No 

Does the species give birth to live young: Yes 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: No 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? No 

Does the species require water for breeding? No 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: Telemetry work in the Kruger National Park (Bonaccorso et al. 2014) showed that during the wet season and into the early dry season, the nightly foraging movements of E. crypturu (and E. wahlbergi) were similar (400m-2km) to those of other fig-specialist bats. However, during a very dry period in July 2005 when few F. sycomorous  produced fruit, E. crypturus (and E. wahlbergi) frequently made movements between 4 and 14 km from day roosts to fruiting F. sycomorous within a night and returned to their original day roosts by sunrise. It is therefore anticipated that fatalities of this species at wind farms may occur more often during winter when fruit is scarce, as appears to be the case for E. wahlbergi (Inkululeko Wildlife Services unpubl. data). 

Congregatory: This species roosts singly or in small groups in the dense foliage of large, leafy trees (Monadjem et al. 2020). 

Systems 

System: Terrestrial 

General Use and Trade Information

The species is not known to be traded for commercial or subsistence use. 

Local Livelihood: (Not specified) 

National Commercial Value: (Not specified) 

International Commercial Value: (Not specified) 

End Use: (Not specified) 

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified) 

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified) 

Threats

Forest degradation due to development is a threat to this species, as is the potential development of wind farms within its range. Some populations may be impacted by general persecution as crop pests (ACR 2015). Roost disturbance and removal of large trees used as roost sites are also plausible threats in some parts of its range. In the Eastern Cape, there are several threats that could be causing localised colony declines and possibly a slow overall population decline in the province such as loss of habitat from deforestation for subsistence fuel wood use (ACR 2015). From 2001 to 2023, the Eastern Cape lost 193 kha of tree cover, equivalent to a 12% decrease in tree cover since 2000. This included a loss of 6.58 kha or 7.6% of humid primary forest between 2002 and 2023 (www.globalforestwatch.org). In addition, the increasing number of wind farms in the Eastern Cape may pose a serious threat for the species. Bats that fly near to turbine blades generally collide directly with a blade, but may experience barotrauma, which is tissue damage caused by rapid changes in air pressure near the blades (Baerwald et al. 2008; Cryan & Barclay 2009; Rydell et al. 2010). Growing numbers of fatalities of Epomophorus species from wind turbines have been recorded since 2015 and are likely to escalate (MacEwan 2016; Aronson 2022; Inkululeko Wildlife Services unpubl. data). The impact that these threats will have on the overall population in the Eastern Cape, Mpumalanga, and KwaZulu-Natal is currently unknown and should be carefully monitored. 

Conservation

The species has been recorded from many protected areas within the assessment region, although these remain to be fully listed. Currently, it is recorded from the Kruger National Park, Mapungubwe National Park, Entabeni Nature Reserve, Songimvelo Nature Reserve, Oribi Gorge Nature Reserve, Umtamvuna Nature Reserve, The Island Nature Reserve, as well as Mlawula Nature Reserve in Eswatini. No direct conservation measures are needed for this widespread and adaptable species as a whole. 

However, in the Eastern Cape, identification of key roost sites and subsequent protected area expansion and habitat rehabilitation in areas suffering from habitat loss would benefit this species. Additionally, the impact of wind farming should be monitored to determine its impact on this species. An effective and standardised method for quantifying the activity of fruit bats at proposed and operational wind farm sites is needed. Thermal binoculars may prove useful in this regard. To mitigate mortalities from turbine collisions, development of wind farms must avoid encroachment into the prescribed buffers around important habitat (e.g., forest, riverine woodland, large fruiting trees) and confirmed and potential roosts of this species (for buffer recommendations see MacEwan et al. 2020 or later). Turbine-fatalities of this species must be reduced below fatality threshold values (as calculated according to MacEwan et al. 2018 or later) with interventions such as curtailing turbines at low wind speeds during times of the year with known fruit bat fatalities (Baerwald et al. 2009; Berthinussen et al. 2010; Arnett et al. 2011). At wind farms near the south-eastern South African coastline, fatalities of Epomophorus species have occurred most often (but not exclusively) during winter (specifically June and July; Inkululeko Wildlife Services unpubl. data). Therefore, curtailment of turbines to mitigate fatalities of this species at wind farms in this part of South Africa may be most (albeit not 100%) effective during winter. As high bat fatalities at wind farms cannot be easily offset (Aronson et al. 2018; Mark Botha pers. comm.), avoidance and minimisation of bat fatalities is critical. Improved conservation (protection, rehabilitation, and expansion) of forest, riverine, and savannah habitats would, however, be beneficial for this species.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: 

• Farmers should be educated on the ecological benefits of having fruit bats around their orchards, and the importance of preserving natural habitat on their farms. 
• Protect large fruit bearing trees. 
• Development of wind farms must strictly avoid encroachment into the prescribed buffers around roosts and other important habitat for fruit bats, especially since current options for mitigating fatalities at wind farms are more limited for fruit bats compared to insectivorous bats. 
• Turbine-fatalities of Epomophorus species must be reduced with interventions such as curtailing turbines at low wind speeds during times of the year with known fatalities. 
• Wind farm carcasses of Epomophorus fruit bats should be identified to species level based on the number of post-dental palatal ridges (one in E. wahlbergi; two in E. crypturus) and muzzle width (or DNA, if feasible). 

Research priorities: 

• Determine how climate change will affect this species. 
• Identify key roost sites and undertake systematic monitoring to determine subpopulation trends. 
• Re-examine specimens from the eastern coastal region to verify taxonomic assignment. 
• Field-based inventories must ensure that Epomophorus specimens are identified correctly based on their post-dental palatal ridges, muzzle width, DNA, calls, and possible other features. 
• A meta-analysis of all recorded E. crypturus fatalities at wind farms in South Africa to date, to assess the cumulative impact of this industry on this species, and to identify any spatial, temporal, or turbine-specific trends, which may assist in devising effective fatality mitigation for future implementation. 
• Research to assess the efficacy of different mitigation methods to reduce fruit bat mortality at wind farms. For example, it is not known whether turbine blade painting (to mitigate avian fatalities) is beneficial or detrimental for fruit bats. 
• Wind farm carcasses of this species could be used to obtain greater insight into the biogeography, genetics, reproductive biology, ecology (e.g., diet), and ecosystem services of this species in eastern southern Africa.  

Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Citizens can assist the conservation of the species by reporting sightings on virtual museum platforms (for example, iNaturalist and MammalMAP) and therefore contribute to an understanding of the species distribution. This species is easily confused with E. wahlbergi but can be distinguished by the presence of two post-dental palatal ridges (only one in E. wahlbergi) (Taylor & Monadjem 2008). 

Bibliography

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Adams RA, Snode ER. 2015. Differences in the male mating calls of co-occurring epauletted fruit bat species (Chiroptera, Pteropodidae, Epomophorus wahlbergiand Epomophorus crypturus) in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Zoological Studies 54: 15. 

Aronson, J. 2022. Current state of knowledge of wind energy impacts on bats in South Africa. Acta Chiropterologica 24: 221-238. 

Arumoogum, N., Schoeman, M.C., Ramdhani, S. 2019. The relative influence of abiotic and biotic factors on suitable habitat of Old World fruit bats under current and future climate scenarios. Mammalian Biology 98: 188-200. 

Bonaccorso, F.J., Winkelmann, J.R., Todd, C.M. and Miles, A.C. 2014. Foraging Movements of Epauletted Fruit Bats (Pteropodidae) in Relation to the Distribution of Sycamore Figs (Moraceae) in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Acta Chiropterologica 16(1): 41-52. 

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MacEwan, K., Aronson, J., Richardson, K., Taylor, P., Coverdale, B., Jacobs, D., Leeuwner, L., Marais, W. and Richards, L. 2018. South African Bat Fatality Threshold Guidelines. Edition 2. South African Bat Assessment Association, South Africa. 

MacEwan, K., Sowler, S., Aronson, J. and Lötter, C. 2020. South African Best Practice Guidelines for Pre-construction Monitoring of Bats at Wind Energy Facilities. Edition 5. South African Bat Assessment Association, South Africa. 

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Mo, M., Roache, M., Davies, J., Hopper, J., Pitty, H., Foster, N., Guy, S., Parry-Jones, K., Francis, G., Koosmen, A. and Colefax, L. 2021. Estimating flying-fox mortality associated with abandonments of pups and extreme heat events during the austral summer of 2019–20. Pacific Conservation Biology, 28(2), pp.124-139. 

Moir, M., Richards, L.R.R., Rambau, R.V., Cherry, M.I. 2020a. Bats of Eastern Cape and southern KwaZulu-Natal forests, South Africa: diversity, call library and range extensions. Acta Chiropterologica, 22(2):365-381 

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Mphethe, V., Weier, S., Westphal, C., Linden, B., Swanepoel, L., Parker, D. and Taylor, P. 2023. Epauletted fruit bats prefer native plants and contribute to seed dispersal in a South African agricultural landscape. African Journal of Ecology 61: 399-410. 

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Taylor, P.J. and Monadjem, A. 2008. Maxillary shape as a diagnostic tool for identifying fruit bats, Epomophorus crypturus and E. wahlbergi (Mammalia: Chiroptera) from museum specimens and in the field. . South African Journal of Wildlife Research 38(1): 22-27.