Overview

Pronolagus crassicaudatus – (I. Geoffroy, 1832)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – LAGOMORPHA – LEPORIDAE – Pronolagus – crassicaudatus

Common Names:  Natal Red Rock Hare, Natal Red Rock Rabbit, Greater Red Rockhare, Natal Red Rockhare (English), Natal se Rooiklipkonyn (Afrikaans)
Synonyms: Pronolagus kariegae Hewiit, 1927; Pronolagus lebombo Roberts, 1936; Pronolagus lebomboensis (lapsus) Roberts, 1936; Pronolagus ruddi Thomas and Schwann, 1905

Taxonomic Note: According to Hoffmann and Smith (2005), there are two recognized subspecies: Pronolagus crassicaudatus crassicaudatus and P. c. ruddi. Duthie and Robinson (1990) also include P. c. kariegae, P. c. bowkeri, and P. c. lebombo, but their validity is questionable (Happold 2013).

Assessment Information

Assessors: Wilson-Hartmann, B.¹, Matthee, C.M.² & da Silva, J.³

Reviewer: Moodley, S.⁴

Institutions: ¹McGregor Museum, Kimberley, ²Stellenbosch University, ³South African National Biodiversity Institute, ⁴Private

Previous Assessors and Reviewers: Matthee, C.M., Wilson, B., Robinson, T.J. & Child, M.F.

Previous Contributors: Roxburgh, L. & Smith, A.

Assessment Rationale 

Red rock hares are widespread but patchily distributed within the assessment region due to their restriction to areas of rocky habitat. While no estimates of population size or trend are available, we infer a large population, given its extents of occurrence, and retain the Least Concern status. However, while their rocky habitats are largely inaccessible and unlikely to be transformed, increasing hunting pressure (inferred from expanding human settlements and anecdotal reports of decline), loss of foraging areas from agricultural expansion, and habitat degradation from overgrazing may be causing local declines and possible extinctions. This species is thought to be substantially utilised for subsistence or sport hunting. The Natal Red Rock Hare occurs in areas with high anthropogenic activity and human settlements.

Although local declines may be occurring due to overhunting for bushmeat in some areas, there was no evidence to suggest a significant widespread population decline during previous assessments. However, with the outbreak of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus strain 2 (RHDV-2) in November 2022 in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa that subsequently spread to all the provinces (DALRRD 2024), urgent investigations are needed to ascertain the effect on populations and subpopulations.

Concerted research into population size, densities and trends, as well as quantifying the identified threats, should be conducted before specific interventions are implemented, as required. Specifically, the area of occupancy and population trends of Natal Red Rock Hares should be determined and reassessed once such data becomes available. Long-term monitoring sites should be established to detect subpopulation trends potentially occurring within different regions.

Regional population effects: For Natal Red Rock Hare, the majority of the population occurs within the assessment region, so no rescue effects are possible.

Reasons for Change

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citation: Wilson-Hartmann B, Matthee CM & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Pronolagus crassicaudatus. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range 

The close confinement of all Pronolagus species to rocky areas means their distribution is discontinuous and naturally fragmented with vast areas of land within their extent of occurrence unsuitable for them (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). As these species exist in habitat patches, area of occupancy should be calculated using land-cover data and remote sensing.

P. crassicaudatus is near endemic to the assessment region, with only a tiny part of its range in southern Mozambique in the Maputo Province (known from only two records there, Happold 2013). It is found in southeastern South Africa in the provinces of Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Matthee et al. 2004), and in Eswatini in the Lumbobo and highveld regions where it is considered uncommon (Monadjem 1998). Although Meester et al. (1986) indicated that it occurs in eastern Lesotho, as it is found from sea level to 1,550 m in elevation (Duthie and Robinson 1990), it is unlikely to occur extensively in Lesotho. Thus, field surveys and specimens are needed to confirm its presence in the country (Lynch 1994). It does occur against the grassy slopes in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg (Pringle 1974). While it is not recorded from the Free State or northeast Eastern Cape (Lynch 1983, 1989), some specimens from the northeastern Eastern Cape possessed both P. rupestris and P. crassicaudatus characters (Lynch 1994).

All museum records need vetting following taxonomic resolution of these species to accurately delineate the distribution maps.

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Natal Red Rock Hare (Pronolagus crassicaudatus) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical

Countries of Occurrence

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified)

FAO Area Occurrence

FAO Marine Areas: (Not specified)

Climate change

The effects of climate change on Pronolagus sp. are currently not well researched, however it can be assumed that climate change per se was unlikely to have a dramatic effect on the Natal Rock Hare during this assessment period. Climate change does however affect the spread of infectious diseases beyond their typical geographic reach. Whilst this may not be the cause of the outbreak of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus strain 2 (RHDV-2) in South Africa at the end of 2022, it can assist in the spread of the virus and increase the susceptibility of hares and rabbits to the effects of droughts and periods of flooding. Often, the cross-border spread of infectious diseases is further exacerbated by the lack of global governance policies or a consensus to mitigate climate change. Future focus should be placed on prioritising infectious disease research and making mitigation recommendations to address possible exacerbation of virus spread that can result from the effects of climate change.

Population information

There are no population size or trend estimates available for any Pronolagus species. The near-endemic Natal Red Rock Hare is a widespread and locally abundant species (Duthie & Robinson 1990; Taylor 1998). However, continually increasing hunting and trapping due to expanding rural settlements is suspected to be causing local declines. In addition, the recent outbreak of RHDV-2 may lead to significant declines throughout the range. This species has a relatively restricted distribution within areas characterised by rapid human population increase and anthropogenic disturbance.

Population Information

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: Unknown

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: Suspected

All individuals in one subpopulation: No

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown

Severely fragmented: Yes. Naturally fragmented across mountainous and rocky areas.

Quantitative Analysis

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified)

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified)

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified)

Population genetics

While the species has been looked at in a phylogenetic context, no population genetic studies have been undertaken on this species to date. With its patchy habitat distribution, this species is thought to exist as a single metapopulation. Due to the absence of population size estimates, effective population size (Ne) cannot be quantified using proxy methods. It is highly recommended that a population genetic study be undertaken to better inform the genetic health and status of this species.

Habitats and ecology

All Pronolagus species appear to have similar habitat requirements; they are confined to rocky areas that provide shelter and occur in krantzes, rocky boulder-strewn hillsides, ravines and amongst rocky areas in dry riverbeds (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). As grazers, habitat is selected based on its prevalence of palatable grasses and shelter from scrub bushes. They are predominantly nocturnal, emerging at dusk to feed but never forage far from their shelters, although they forage around the base of hills looking for fresh sprouting grasses (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Shortridge (1934) remarked on their ability to ‘vanish like shadows behind rocks or down rock crevices on the slightest alarm’. Also characteristic of the genus are their flattened round dung pellets deposited on flat spaces amongst rocks (Lynch 1983). They use latrines established away from their resting sites. Rock hares are unique in their ability to run and jump over rocks and can run up steep rock faces to reach crevices when fleeing. Key vegetation types are those typical of mountainous and rocky terrain, including Afromontane and Afroalpine areas.

The Natal Red Rock Hare is usually observed in tall, dense grassland on rocky slopes where grasses and shrubs grow among the rocks or at their bases (Happold 2013). They are nocturnal, relying on rocks for shelter during the day, although they have occasionally been flushed in thick grass where they presumably were resting. They live in small colonies consisting of a few hares.  They are herbivores and feed on grass, especially young grass, weeds, and herbs. As they obtain moisture from dew and food, they are independent of water, but drink when water is available. They may move to higher elevations at night to forage.

They defecate at specific sites (latrines), which is often the only evidence of their presence in an area. This is the largest of the rock hare species. Much like the other members of the family, this species is rabbit-like with thick, dense woolly pelage typically greyish in colour becoming rufous on the rump and limbs. It is the largest of the Pronolagus species. The chin is white to grey, with colour extending in a broad band along the lower jaw to the inferior margin of the nape patch (Robinson 1982). The feet are generally rufous-brown whilst the tail is bright rufous above and below. They have 360-degree vision, in addition to an acute sense of smell and hearing. On erecting its ears, a network of veins on the inner surface radiates heat to reduce the body temperature.

Whilst not much is known about the reproduction of this species, it is likely to be like other red rock hares. Nests are typically built in shallow excavations and lined with fur from the mother’s belly and flanks over a grass and stick structure. This species probably breeds year-round and has 1–2 altricial young per litter deposited in a nest lined with the belly fur of the female.

Ecosystem and cultural services:

• The near-endemic P. crassicaudatus is a flagship species for its region.
• Hares and rabbits are recognised as important seed dispersal agents, particularly in harsh environments.

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme

Life History

Generation Length: (Not specified)

Age at maturity: female: 6 months

Age at Maturity: Male: 6 months

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: (Not specified)

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: (Not specified)

Longevity: 2-3 years

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified)

Maximum Size (in cms): 50-67cm

Size at Birth (in cms): (Not specified)

Gestation Time: 32-38 days

Reproductive Periodicity: Year-round

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: 1-2 per litter

Natural Mortality: (Not specified)

Does the species lay eggs? No

Does the species give birth to live young: Yes

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: No

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? No

Does the species require water for breeding? No

Movement Patterns

Movement Patterns: (Not specified)

Congregatory: (Not specified)

Systems

System: Terrestrial

General Use and Trade Information

This species is likely to be important in subsistence communities where they are easily hunted. Maliehe (1993) specifically mentioned rock hares as being an important bush meat item in Lesotho and in Zululand, but this is likely to be true throughout their ranges. As a slow-moving species, they are easily hunted with dogs. At night, they tend to freeze when chanced upon in spotlights and can be easily shot or captured in nets (B. Wilson pers. obs.). During the day, it is also possible to hunt them in their refuges, using a coiled piece of barbed wire that hooks and drags the animal out of its shelter (B. Wilson pers. obs.). Whilst having a particularly warm and thick fur, pelts from these species are prone to hairslip and do not cure well, making them unsuitable for hardwearing fur items.

National Commercial Value: No

International Commercial Value: No

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified)

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified)

Threats

P. crassicaudatus is found in a limited area in coastal and inland southern Africa. Here, human populations largely of lower income who hunt local fauna for subsistence are increasing, thereby increasing the threat to this otherwise abundant species (Matthee et al. 2004). Sport hunting with dogs may also be impacting the Natal Red Rock Hare, as empirical evidence suggests a wide range of species are affected and the sport hunters are indiscriminate (Grey-Ross et al. 2010).

Agriculture and habitat encroachment are also causing a decline of P. crassicaudatus (Matthee et al. 2004). Since the 1900’s, 21-50% of total habitat has been lost, and future loss (until 2022) is expected to remain between 21-50% (Matthee et al. 2004).

Additionally, because of available food resources, many goat and sheep-farming areas also report higher than normal rates of predators such as Black-backed Jackals (Lupulella mesomelas) and Caracals (Caracal caracal), which is exacerbated by indiscriminate and non-holistic predator control methods (Minnie et al. 2016). These predators pose a threat to the rock hares when at abnormally high numbers. Another possible reason for a decline in population numbers in some areas (for example, the lower Karoo) may be linked to higher-than-normal numbers of sympatric Hyrax species (Procavia spp.) (B. Wilson pers. obs.). Following recent declines in raptor species in the region (for example, Anderson 2000), some areas have seen population explosions of diurnal hyraxes. The two species now compete directly for food resources. Since rock hare species occur at relatively low densities, it is unlikely that they are considered a significant competitive grazing species and thus are not expected to be persecuted by farmers.

However, a more urgent concern has recently emerged for this restricted population. In October 2022, reports of unusual Lepus deaths were received from the Middelpos, Springbok and Fraserburg areas in the Northern Cape. In November 2022 affected carcasses tested by Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Laboratory, the deaths were confirmed to as the result of the highly contagious and acute fatal hepatitis of Leporids called Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus 2 strain (RHDV-2). The new variant RHDV-2 affects rabbits, but also causes fatal RHD in various Lepus species, including Sardinian Cape hares (L. capensis mediterraneus), Italian hares (L. corsicanus), and mountain hares (L. timidus) (Rocchi & Dagleish 2018). This disease, which originated in China in 1984, primarily affects all rabbit and hares. Caused by a calicivirus, it was previously absent in South Africa. Infection typically occurs by the oral route. It spreads very easily, normally through direct contact between individuals but is also carried by insects, birds, scavengers feeding on carcasses, contaminated food or urine and faeces, and by humans   on clothes, shoes, tools and car tyres. The virus can persist in infected meat (even if frozen) and for long periods in decomposing carcasses (Gleeson & Petritz 2020). Incubation varies from one to three days, and death usually occurs 12-36 hours after the onset of fever. The main clinical manifestations of the acute infection are nervous and respiratory signs, apathy and anorexia. In RHDV-2, clinical signs and mortality are observed even in young animals from 7 to 15 days of age onwards. Indirect control of the disease is easily achieved by vaccination. RHDV has never been reported in humans and other mammals.  Outbreaks tend to be seasonal (typically peak breeding seasons) in wild rabbit and hare populations where adults have survived infection and are immune (Kerr & Donnelly 2013). As young kits grow up and stop nursing, they no longer receive the antibodies in their mother’s milk and become susceptible to infection. Mortality rates are high and up to 90% of infected individuals die (WOAH 2025). Not all rabbits exposed to RHDV-2 become overtly ill. A small proportion of infected rabbits clears the virus without developing signs of disease (Kerr & Donnelly 2013).  Asymptomatic carriers also occur, and can continue to shed virus for months, thereby infecting other animals. Surviving rabbits develop a strong immunity to the specific viral variant with which they were infected (Gleeson & Petritz 2020).

This outbreak is of concern for indigenous rabbit and hare species due to their historic naivety to the virus and thus susceptibility to the virus. Whilst a vaccine is available for captive situations international, there is no specific treatment for RHDV-2, and management is limited to preventing further spread.

Often, the cross-border spread of infectious diseases is further exacerbated by the lack of global governance, a factor that led to the introduction of this disease into South Africa and allowed it to spread to neighbouring countries.

Conservation

Rock hares exist in numerous national and provincial protected areas, as well as, presumably, private protected areas and conservancies. However, these should be collated and confirmed to estimate current occupancy. They are protected by most Provincial Nature Conservation agencies to a certain degree but Eastern Cape Province.

Research to quantify potential threats, area of occupancy, population size and trends will aid in conservation interventions.

The following general interventions will benefit the rock hare species:

1. Set aside land under crop and livestock agriculture to conserve foraging areas around rocky areas or dry riverbeds.
2. Enforce legislation restricting residential development in rocky habitat or hilly slopes.
3. Employ ecological stocking rates to reduce habitat degradation and grazing pressure.
4. Employ holistic management of predators to reduce heightened interspecific predation and competition.
5. The continued formation of conservancies should be encouraged to protect rocky habitat and reduce localised grazing pressure.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:

• Holistic management of ranch lands through reduction in stocking rates, predator control or areas of set-aside habitat.

Research priorities:

• Taxonomic revision is suggested for this species. Fine scale distributional studies across the range.
• Studies on changes in density across a spectrum of habitat quality. Quantification of population size and trends.
• Studies into the dispersal abilities and survival of subadult individuals in different habitats.
• Levels of direct persecution by farmers and subsistence hunters, and the efficacy of education and awareness programmes targeted at landowners.
• Long-term monitoring of population and subpopulation trends.
• Vetting of museum records to revise distribution maps.
• Potential of wildlife ranching and the private sector in conserving rock hares.
• Determination of the impact of RHDV-2 on the southern African population, particularly at subpopulation level.

Encouraged citizen actions:

• Refrain from having too many dogs on farms.
• Report sightings, especially outside protected areas, on virtual museum platforms (for example, iNaturalist and MammalMAP). Look out for their disc-shaped pellets as an indication of their presence.
• Balanced farming methods to prevent changes in predation pressures experienced by the hares.
• Report unusual death outbreaks potentially linked to RHDV-2 and prevent the spread of the disease.

Bibliography

Anderson, M.D. 2000. Raptor conservation in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa. Ostrich 71: 25–32.

Bronner, G.N., Hoffmann, M., Taylor, P.J., Chimimba, C.T., Best, P., Mathee, C.A., Robinson, T.J. 2003. A revised systematic checklist of the extant mammals of the southern African subregion. Durban Museum Novitates 28: 56–106.

Department Agriculture, Land Reform and Rural Development. 2024. Rabbit haemorrhagic disease outbreak update report. Directorate Animal Health, 27 February 2024.

Duthie, A.G. and Robinson, T.J. 1990. The African rabbits. In: J.A. Chapman and J.E.C. Flux (eds), Rabbits, Hares and Pikas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan, pp. 121-127. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

GeoTerraImage. 2015. 1990-2013/14 South African National Land-Cover Change. DEA/CARDNO SCPF002: Implementation of Land-Use Maps for South Africa. Project Specific Data Report.

Gleeson, M. and Petritz, O.A. 2020. Emerging Infectious Diseases of Rabbits. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. 23 (2): 249–261.

Grey-Ross, R., Downs, C.T., Kirkman, K. 2010. An assessment of illegal hunting on farmland in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for oribi (Ourebia ourebi) conservation. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 40: 43-52.

Happold, D.C.D. 2013. Pronoloagus crassicaudatus Natal Red Rock Hare. Pages 713–714 in Happold DCD, editor. Mammals of Africa. Volume III: Rodents, Hares and Rabbits. Bloomsbury Publishing, London, UK.

Jewitt, D., Goodman, P.S., Erasmus, B.F.N., O’Connor, T.G., Witkowski, E.T.F. 2015. Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for biodiversity. South African Journal of Science 111: 1–9.

Kerr, P.J. and Donnelly, T.M. 2013. Viral infections of Rabbits. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. 16 (2): 437–468.

Lynch, C.D. 1983. The mammals of the Orange Free State, South Africa. Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum Bloemfontein 18: 1-218.

Lynch, C.D. 1994. The mammals of Lesotho. Navorsinge van die Nasionale Museum, Bloemfontein 10: 177–241.

Maliehe, T.M. 1993. Non-wood forest products in South Africa. Paper prepared for the Regional Expert Consultation on non-wood forest products for English-speaking African countries. Commonwealth Science Council, Arusha, Tanzania.

Matthee, C., Collins, K. and Keith, M. 2004. Pronolagus crassicaudatus. In: Y. Friedman and B. Daly (eds), Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa: A Conservation Assessment, pp. 418-419. CBSG Southern Africa, Conservation Breeding Specialist Group (SSC/IUCN), Endangered Wildlife Trust.

Meester, J.A.J., Rautenbach, I.L., Dippenaar, N.J. and Baker, C.M. 1986. Classification of southern African mammals. Transvaal Museum Monographs 5: 1–359.

Minnie, L., Gaylard, A, Kerley, G.I. 2016. Compensatory life-history responses of a mesopredator may undermine carnivore management efforts. Journal of Applied Ecology 53: 379-387.

Monadjem, A. 1998. Distributional patterns and conservation status of mammals of Swaziland, southern Africa. Koedoe 41: 45–59.

Pringle, J.A. 1974. The distribution of mammals in Natal. Part I. Primates, Hyracoidea, Lagomorpha (except Lepus), Pholidota and Tubulidentata. Annals of the Natal Museum 22: 93–115.

Rautenbach, I.L. 1982. Mammals of the Transvaal. No. 1, Ecoplan Monograph, Pretoria, South Africa.

Robinson, T.J. 1982. Key to the South African Leporidae (Mammalia: Lagomorpha). South African Journal of Zoology 17: 220–222.

Rocchi, M.S. and Dagleish, M.P. 2018. Diagnosis and prevention of rabbit viral haemorrhagic disease 2. In Practice. 40 (1): 11–16.

Sen, S. & Pickford, M. 2022. Red rock hares (Leporidae, Lagomorpha) past and present in southern Africa, and a new species of Pronolagus from the early Pleistocene of Angola. Communications of the Geological Survey of Namibia, 24, 67-97.

Shortridge, G.C. 1934. The Mammals of South West Africa. Heinemann, London, UK.

Skinner, J.D. and Chimimba, C.T. 2005. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Taylor, P.J. 1998. The Smaller Mammals of KwaZulu-Natal. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

World Organisation for Animal Health. Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease.