Overview

Myosorex cafer – Sundevall, 1846

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – EULIPOTYPHLA – SORICIDAE – Myosorex – cafer 

Common Names: Dark-footed Forest Shrew (English), Donkerpoortbosskeerbek (Afrikaans)

Synonyms: No Synonyms 

Taxonomic Note: 
Meester et al. (1986) recognised the subspecies M. c. cafer and M. c. sclateri but biochemical and morphological data suggested a rise to full species status for both (Maddalena & Bronner 1992; Kearney 1993). Isolated populations in the highlands of Zimbabwe and Mozambique, and north-eastern Limpopo Province have been previously assigned to M. cafer (Friedmann & Daly 2004). Within the M. cafer complex, Willows-Munro (2008) and Taylor et al. (2013), using a combination of molecular and morphological characters, demonstrated considerable lineage diversification. Myosorex sclateri and M. cafer were split in 2008 (Willows-Munro 2008). The Zimbabwe and Mozambique population are considered a new species (M. meesteri) and the Limpopo lineage was tentatively assigned to M. tenius based on small cranial size. A detailed molecular and morphological analysis of the latter assignment is needed. 

Red List Status: VU – Vulnerable, B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) (IUCN version 3.1) 

Assessment Information

Assessors: Taylor, P.¹, & da Silva, J.M.²

Reviewer: Russo, I.³ 

Contributor: Patel, T.⁴ 

Institutions:¹University of the Free State, ²South African National Biodiversity Institute, ³Cardiff University, ⁴Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Previous Assessors & Reviewers: Willows-Munro, S., Baxter, R. & Taylor, P. 

Previous Contributors: Roxburgh, L., Child, M.F., Avenant, N.L., Avery, M., MacFayden, D., Monadjem, A., Palmer, G. & Wilson, B. 

Assessment Rationale 

This newly re-defined endemic species is a forest habitat specialist, occurring primarily in moist Afromontane forest. The estimated area of occupancy (AOO) of forest habitat, based on remaining natural habitat in 2014, is 1,263 km². If we assume a linear rate of loss, 4.9–6.4% of suitable available habitat was lost between 2015 and 2025. This model is corroborated by land cover analysis in KwaZulu-Natal which showed there was a 19.7% loss of natural habitat from 1994 to 2011, with an average loss of 1.2% per year. Although the niche models predict a shift towards the coast as the climate changes, there are very few natural areas left as coastal development has proceeded rapidly (between 2000 and 2013, there has been a 5.6% and 1.1% rate of urban and rural expansion in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, respectively) and thus this represents an outright loss of AOO. Furthermore, remaining forest patches are fragmented and the species is suspected to have poor dispersal rates. Thus, we list this species as Vulnerable B2ab(i,ii,iii,iv) as it has a restricted and severely fragmented AOO, with an inferred and projected ongoing decline in both habitat, habitat quality (if moist conditions deteriorate) and forest patches (construed as subpopulations) from climate change, residential/industrial expansion and edge effects. Key interventions include protected area expansion of forest habitats, including the creation of corridors between patches and across elevational gradients to facilitate gene flow and allow adaptation to climate change, as well as the enforcement of regulations restricting disturbance to protected forests. 

Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change 

Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change 

Recommended citation: Taylor P & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Myosorex cafer. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Distribution

Geographic Range

Although previously thought to exist in South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe, recent molecular work has confirmed it as endemic to the assessment region (Willows-Munro 2008; Taylor et al. 2013). It is now thought not to occur within the Limpopo or Mpumalanga Provinces, where these specimens may instead refer to as Mysorex cf. tenuis (Taylor et al. 2013). However, further molecular and taxonomic work of existing museum specimens is necessary to fully delineate the two species. They occur in Eswatini, the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape Provinces, as far west as the Amathole Forest at Hogsback (Skinner &  Chimimba  2005; Baxter & Dippenaar 2013a). They are sympatric in some areas with the more widespread M. varius. They are restricted to moist evergreen Afromontane (above 1,000 m asl) and temperate forests, which are highly fragmented within the assessment region. The estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) is 59,384 km². The estimated AOO of forest habitat, based on remaining natural habitat in 2014, is 1,263 km². 

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for Dark-footed Forest Shrew (Myosorex cafer) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical 

Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence 

Table 1. Countries of occurrence within southern Africa 

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified)

FAO Area Occurrence 

FAO Marine Areas: (Not specified) 

Climate change

Climate change is the principal  emerging threat to this species (Taylor et al. 2016), both due to loss of habitat and habitat degradation from drying out wetlands and because shrews cannot tolerate extreme temperatures for long periods and thus their foraging time will be reduced. Because of their high metabolism, low dispersal capacity and short life spans, climate change will reduce the amount of suitable habitat available. The fragmented nature of forest patches is likely to exacerbate the effects of climate change. Habitat in neighbouring areas is arid and unsuitable for this species and thus it would not be able to disperse to other areas if the climate in its current range became unsuitable. Climate modelling work shows that forest habitat and thus AOO will be reduced by 37–48% by 2050 (since 1975) (Taylor et al. 2013). 

Population information

This species generally occurs at densities of around 10–30 individuals / 0.01 km² in suitable habitat (R. Baxter, unpubl. data). Extrapolating this density estimate across its estimated area of occupancy yields a population size of 1,263,000–3,789,000 individuals. It is more abundant in damp microhabitats and tends to be more common in forests while M. varius dominates in grasslands (Baxter & Dippenaar 2013a). 

Population Information 

Current population trend: Declining. Inferred from ongoing forest habitat loss. 

Continuing decline in mature individuals: Unknown  

Number of mature individuals in population: Unknown  

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: 1,263,000 

Number of subpopulations: Unknown, but may correspond to discrete forest patches.  

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: (Not specified) 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: Yes. Inferred from ongoing forest loss. 

All individuals in one subpopulation: (Not specified) 

Severely fragmented: Yes 

Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: (Not specified) 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: (Not specified) 

Population genetics

Two broadscale phylogeographic studies have been undertaken on this species using mitochondrial DNA (Willows-Munro & Matthee, 2009; Matamba et al. 2020). The first study found shallow genetic divergence between M. cafer from the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal Provinces. However, through the incorporation of more samples across all forest types, Matamba et al. (2020) were able to show divergence of the Amatole mistbelt populations from the others and that the Transkei mistbelt forest population is more diverse. While additional genetic structure might be uncovered using more fine scale molecular markers (microsatellites/SNPs), at the very least two subpopulations should be recognised within this species.  

Based upon the population size estimates extrapolated from density estimates (see Population section), a measure of effective population size (Ne) can be obtained. Applying a  Ne/Nc  conversion ratio between 0.1-0.3, yields Ne between 126,300-1,136,700 individuals. Assuming even representation across both subpopulations, each would have an Ne  between 63,150-568,350, far exceeding the Ne 500 ratio.  These Ne estimates are likely to be overestimates (density estimates are based on all individuals and not just the adult individuals), but are likely effective enough to show genetic stability and health.  

Habitats and ecology

Dark-footed Forest Shrews are restricted to moist, densely vegetated forests and grasslands. In the KwaZulu-Natal Province, it occurs almost exclusively in Afromontane (mistbelt), scarp and coastal forests (Taylor 1998), while in the Eastern Cape Province they can be the dominant small mammal species in Afromontane Forest (Baxter & Dippenaar 2013b). In captivity, they are predominantly nocturnal (Baxter et al. 1979), but, although almost entirely nocturnal in summer, are trapped during the day during winter (R. Baxter, unpubl. data). In the Amathole Forest, they have been observed to forage in the soil substrate, presumably searching for soil invertebrates (R. Baxter pers. obs.). 

Ecosystem and cultural services: Candidate for flagship species in forest biodiversity stewardship schemes. Both the Barn Owl (Tyto alba) and the Grass Owl (Tyto capensis) are known to prey on this species (Skinner & Chimimba 2005). 

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Life History 

Generation Length: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: (Not specified) 

Age at Maturity: Male: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: (Not specified) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: (Not specified) 

Longevity: (Not specified) 

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified) 

Maximum Size (in cms): (Not specified) 

Size at Birth (in cms): (Not specified) 

Gestation Time: (Not specified) 

Reproductive Periodicity: (Not specified) 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: (Not specified) 

Natural Mortality: (Not specified) 

Does the species lay eggs? (Not specified) 

Does the species give birth to live young: (Not specified) 

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: (Not specified) 

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? (Not specified) 

Does the species require water for breeding? (Not specified) 

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: (Not specified) 

Congregatory: (Not specified) 

Systems 

System: Terrestria

General Use and Trade Information

There is no known subsistence or commercial use of this species.  

Local Livelihood: (Not specified) 

National Commercial Value: (Not specified) 

International Commercial Value: (Not specified) 

End Use: (Not specified) 

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? (Not specified) 

Harvest Trend Comments: (Not specified) 

Threats

The main threat to shrews is the loss or degradation of moist, productive areas such as wetlands and rank grasslands within suitable forest habitat. The two main drivers behind this are abstraction of surface water and draining of wetlands through industrial and residential expansion, and overgrazing of moist grasslands, which leads to the loss of ground cover and decreases small mammal diversity and abundance (Bowland & Perrin 1989). Suppression of natural ecosystem processes, such as fire, can also lead to habitat degradation through bush encroachment or loss of plant diversity through alien invasives, and is suspected to be increasing with human settlement expansion. There are also clear overlaps and synergistic effects between these threats. Shrews have a high metabolic rate and thus rely on highly productive and complex environments, where small mammal diversity is highest (Bowland & Perrin 1993). Forests are protected by South African law, but they are still being degraded due  of human encroachment for livestock grazing and fuelwood extraction. The forest biome has one of the highest proportions of threatened ecosystems  (Driver et al. 2012). Similarly, 65% of wetland ecosystem types are threatened (48% Critically Endangered, 12% Endangered and 5% Vulnerable; Driver et al. 2012). 

Current habitat trend: Overall, there was a 19.7% loss of natural habitat in the KwaZulu-Natal Province from 1994 to 2008, with an average loss of 1.2% per year (Jewitt et al. 2015). If this rate continued, it was estimated that a 12% loss of habitat occurred between 2009 and 2019. Similarly, based on the results of Berliner and Desmet (2007), it can be deduced that 2% of the natural area of the Eastern Cape Province was lost during the period 2007 and 2015 at the rate of 0.24% per year. Additionally, between 2000 and 2013, there has been a 5.6% and 1.1% rate of urban and rural expansion in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, respectively. In addition,  6.3% and 0.8% rate of urban and rural expansion in the Eastern Cape Province, respectively have been observed (GeoTerraImage 2015), which indicates both a loss of habitat and possibly an increase in human encroachment on forest and wetland resources, which we infer as  habitat degradation. Finally, climate modelling has projected a 37–48% loss of available habitat from 1975 to 2050 (Taylor et al. 2016), where distribution may shift towards the coast with climate change. However, as there is increasing development along the coast, very few suitable areas would remain for dispersal. 

Conservation

The main intervention for this species is the protection and restoration of wetlands and grasslands within and around forest patches. As habitat loss from climate change will be further compounded by loss from land transformation (Driver et al. 2012), a critical intervention is to increase the extent of protected area networks that connect mountainous areas to lowland or coastal habitats, thus facilitating dispersal routes along elevational gradients. Biodiversity stewardship schemes should be promoted if landowners possess wetlands or grasslands close to core protected areas or remaining forest patches, and the effects on small mammal subpopulations should be monitored. Protecting such habitats may create dispersal corridors between forest patches that will enable adaptation to climate change. 

All forests in South Africa are protected by law, although the degree to which this is enforced may vary. Legislation should be enforced to prevent development or human encroachment in key habitats, which includes increased enforcement of forest-related transgressions to minimise disturbance to existing forest patches, as well as stricter zonation on development to decrease fragmentation of remaining forests. 

At the local scale, landowners and managers should be educated, encouraged and incentivised to conserve the habitats on which shrews and small mammals depend. Retaining ground cover is the most important management tool to increase small mammal diversity and abundance. This can be achieved through lowering grazing pressure (Bowland & Perrin 1989), or by maintaining a buffer strip of natural vegetation around wetlands (Driver et al. 2012). Research will be needed to set the recommended length of the buffer strip in various habitats, but 500 m may provide a good indication of ecological integrity (Driver et al. 2012). Small mammal diversity and abundance is also higher in more complex or heterogeneous landscapes, where periodic burning is an important management tool (Bowland & Perrin 1993). Similarly, the specific fire regime thresholds should be calibrated by research. Removing alien vegetation from watersheds, watercourses and wetlands is also an important intervention to improve flow and water quality, and thus habitat quality, for shrews. This can be achieved through the Working for Water Programme (for example, Marais et al. 2004). However, the subsequent effects on shrew subpopulations must be monitored to demonstrate success (sensu Richardson & van Wilgen 2004).  Education and awareness campaigns should be employed to teach landowners and local communities about the importance of conserving wetlands and moist grasslands. 

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: 

• More accurate estimates of forest patch occupancy through extensive live-trapping and field surveys should be conducted through dedicated surveys by specialists and conservation authorities to more accurately establish geographical range and potential biodiversity stewardship sites, thus informing spatial conservation planning. 

• Enforce regulations on developments that potentially impact on the habitat integrity of forests. 

• Landowners should be incentivised to stock livestock or wildlife at ecological carrying capacity and to maintain a buffer of natural vegetation around wetlands. 

Research priorities: 

• Further analysis of museum specimens is needed to correctly identify and delimit the distributions of M. cafer, M. sclateri and M. tenuis. 

• Research should be conducted to determine disturbance thresholds in various habitats (for example, ecological stocking rates, amount of natural vegetation needed to sustain a viable subpopulation, and fire intensity and frequency needed to sustain habitat complexity) needed by managers to conserve shrew species. 

Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Citizens are requested to submit any shrews killed by cats or drowned in pools to a museum or a provincial conservation authority for identification, thereby enhancing our knowledge of shrew distribution (carcasses can be placed in a ziplock bag and frozen with the locality recorded). 

Bibliography

Baxter R, Dippenaar N. 2013a. Myosorex varius (Smuts). Forest Shrew. Pages 161–163 in Happold M, Happold D, editors. Mammals of Africa, Volume IV: Hedgehogs, Shrews and Bats. Bloomsbury Publishing, London, UK.

Baxter R, Dippenaar N. 2013b. Myosorex cafer (Sundevall). Dark- footed Forest Shrew. Pages 152–153 in Happold M, Happold D, editors. Mammals of Africa, Volume IV: Hedgehogs, Shrews and Bats. Bloomsbury Publishing, London, UK.

Baxter RM, Goulden EA, Meester J. 1979. Activity patterns of Myosorex varius and M. cafer in captivity. South African Journal of Zoology 14:91–93.

Berliner D, Desmet P. 2007. Eastern Cape Biodiversity Conservation Plan: Technical Report. Project No 2005-012. Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria, South Africa.

Bowland AE, Perrin MR. 1989. The effect of overgrazing on the small mammals in Umfolozi Game Reserve. Mammalian Biology 54:251–260.

Bowland JM, Perrin MR. 1993. Wetlands as reservoirs of small- mammal populations in the Natal Drakensberg. South African Journal of Wildlife Research 23:39–43.

Driver A, Sink KJ, Nel JN, Holness S, van Niekerk L, Daniels F, Jonas Z, Majiedt PA, Harris L, Maze K. 2012. National Biodiversity Assessment 2011: An Assessment of South Africa’s Biodiversity and Ecosystems. Synthesis Report. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Department of Environmental Affairs, Pretoria.

Friedmann Y, Daly B, editors. 2004. Red Data Book of the Mammals of South Africa: A Conservation Assessment. CBSG Southern Africa, IUCN SSC Conservation Breeding Specialist Group, Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

GeoTerraImage. 2015. Quantifying settlement and built-up land use change in South Africa.

Jewitt D, Goodman PS, Erasmus BFN, O’Connor TG, Witkowski ETF. 2015. Systematic land-cover change in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa: implications for biodiversity. South African Journal of Science 111:1–9.

Kearney TC. 1993. A craniometric analysis of three taxa of Myosorex from Natal and Transkei. M.Sc. Thesis. University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa.

Maddalena T, Bronner G. 1992. Biochemical systematics of the endemic African genus Myosorex Gray, 1838 (Mammalia: Soricidae). Israel Journal of Zoology 38:245–252.

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Matamba, E., Richards, L.R., Cherry, M.I. & Rambau, R.V. 2020. DNA barcoding and molecular taxonomy of dark-footed forest shrew Myosorex cafer in the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Vertebrate Zoology, 70, pp.667-678.

Meester JA, Rautenbach IL, Dippenaar NJ, Baker CM. 1986. Classification of southern African mammals. Transvaal Museum Monographs 5:1–359.

Ogony OL. 2014. Potential impacts of climate change on Mysorex species as a model for extinction risk of montane small mammals in South Africa. M.Sc. Thesis. University of Venda, Thoyandou, South Africa.

Richardson DM, van Wilgen BW. 2004. Invasive alien plants in South Africa: how well do we understand the ecological impacts? South African Journal of Science 100:45–52.

Skinner JD, Chimimba CT. 2005. The Mammals of the Southern African Subregion. Third edition. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

Taylor PJ. 1998. The Smaller Mammals of KwaZulu-Natal. University of Natal Press, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa. 

Taylor PJ, Kearney TC, Peterhans K, Julian C, Baxter RM, Willows- Munro S. 2013. Cryptic diversity in forest shrews of the genus Myosorex from southern Africa, with the description of a new species and comments on Myosorex tenuis. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 169:881–902.

Taylor PJ, Ogony L, Ogola J, Baxter RM. 2016. South African mouse shrews (Myosorex) feel the heat: using species distribution models (SDMs) and IUCN Red List criteria to flag extinction risks due to climate change. Mammal Research:1–14.

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Willows-Munro, S. & Matthee, C.A. 2009. The evolution of the southern African members of the shrew genus Myosorex: understanding the origin and diversification of a morphologically cryptic group. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 51, 394–398.