Overview

Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus– (Schreber, 1775)

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – CARNIVORA – OTARIIDAE – Arctocephalus – pusillus- pusillus 

Common Names: Cape Fur Seal, Afro-Australian Fur Seal, Brown Fur Seal, South African Fur Seal (English), Kaapsepelsrob (Afrikaans), Lenyedi, Tau ya lewatle (Sepedi), Sili Ya Vhukuse (Venda), Inja Yolwandle Yesakapa (Xhosa), Imvu Yamanzi (Zulu)

Synonyms: Phoca pusilla Schreber, 1775 

Taxonomic Note:  

The Cape Fur Seal is congeneric with the Australian Fur Seal A. p. doriferus. The two subspecies are almost identical in both anatomy and behaviour (Warneke & Shaughnessy 1985, Kirkman & Arnould 2018). Repenning et al. (1971) separated them based on a single cranial character and separate geographic ranges.  Very low genetic divergence indicates that they split relatively recently, with the Australian subspecies being established some 13 000 years ago (Lento et al. 1997; Wynen et al. 2001, Malan et al. 2022).  

Red List Status: LC – Least Concern, (IUCN version 3.1)

Assessment Information

Assessors: Seakamela, S.M.¹ & Hofmeyr, G.J.G.² 

Reviewer: Smith, C.³

Contributor: Nghimwatya, L. & Patel, T. 

Institutions: ¹Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, ²Port Elizabeth Museum at Bayworld, ³Endangered Wildlife Trust 

Previous Assessors & Reviewers: Hofmeyr, G.J.G., Kirkman, S.P., Seakamela, S.M. & Pistorius, P.A.

Previous Contributors: Meyer, M., Oosthuizen, H., Lowry, L., Page-Nicholson, S. & Child, M.F. 

 Assessment Rationale 

Due to its large population size, lack of major threats, and recently documented range expansions, the Cape Fur Seal of South Africa should remain classified as Least Concern. However, the subspecies is subject to legal harvesting across the order in Namibia, fisheries bycatch, deliberate killing at sea, possible illegal harvesting and the effects of novel diseases. Included in the latter is rabies, which was been recorded in fur seals for the first time in May 2024 (van Helden 2024). Of further concern is High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) which has resulted in elevated mortalities of sympatric species of seabirds (Abolnik et al. 2024). In the future, climate change may also pose threats to the species (Kovacs et al. 2012). It is therefore important that demographic changes, interactions with fisheries and possible infections are monitored. 

Regional population effects: 
Breeding colonies occur at numerous island and mainland sites along the east, south and west coasts of South Africa and the population is contiguous with the population in Namibia (Oosthuizen 1991; Kirkman et al. 2013, Makhado et al. 2024). 

 Reasons for Change 

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change   

 Red List Index 

Red List Index: No change   

Recommended citation: Seakamela SM & Hofmeyr GJG. 2025. A conservation assessment of Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range 

It is thought that historically the Cape Fur Seal population occurred on most, if not all, the coastal islands offshore of South Africa and Namibia. However, uncontrolled harvesting and habitat modification resulted in shifts in the distribution of the breeding population, with the bulk currently breeding at mainland sites while colonies at many former breeding islands remain extinct (Kirkman et al. 2007). Since the 1970s a range expansion has been recorded, with an increase in the number of breeding colonies from 23 to 40 (Kirkman et al. 2013). While the southeastern-most extent of the breeding range remains Algoa Bay in South Africa, the northwestern-most limit extended by 2009 from northern Namibia to a single Angolan colony at Ilha dos Tigres. Cape fur seals also occur at several non-breeding colonies or temporary haul-out sites throughout their range.

Within South Africa, the range of the breeding population is between Black Rocks in Algoa Bay, and Buchu Twins, south of the Orange River mouth. New breeding locations have been established within this range in recent years such as at Mitchell’s Bay, Cape Point and Cape Infanta (Seakamela 2025). In addition, some locations of historical breeding colonies such as Vondeling Island (Kirkman et al. 2013, Seakamela 2024) and Robberg Peninsula in Plettenberg Bay (Huisamen et al. 2012) have been re-colonised. While colonies were traditionally defined as sites with a consistent annual pup production of at least 100 pups Oosthuizen & David 1988) breeding took place at other sites. As of 2020, breeding took place at a total of 28 sites in South Africa, including those not meeting the traditional definition (Seakamela et al. 2024)

Cape Fur Seals are generally not migratory. However, small numbers follow the Sardine Run eastwards during winter (O’Donoghue et al. 2010). While this species breeds seasonally, haul-outs are occupied year-round (David 1987a). Feeding is generally restricted to the continental shelf area (David 1987b). Vagrants have therefore only been recorded twice, in Gabon (Thibault 1999) and on the Prince Edward Islands (Kerley 1983). 

 Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones 

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified) 

Depth Zone: (Not specified) 

 Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for  Cape Fur Seal (Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Biogeographic Realms 

Biogeographic Realm: Afrotropical 

 Occurrence 

Countries of Occurrence within southern Africa 

Country	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
Angola	Extant	Native	–	–
Australia	Extant	Native	–	–
Australia -> New South Wales	Extant	Native	–	–
Australia -> South Australia	Extant	Native	–	–
Australia -> Tasmania	Extant	Native	–	–
Australia -> Victoria	Extant	Native	–	–
Gabon	Extant	Vagrant	–	–
Namibia	Extant	Native	–	–
South Africa	Extant	Native	–	–
South Africa -> Northern Cape Province	Extant	Native
South Africa -> Eastern Cape Province	Extant	Native	–	–
South Africa -> Marion-Prince Edward Is.	Extant	Vagrant	–	–
South Africa -> Western Cape	Extant	Native	–	–
South Africa -> KwaZulu Natal Province	Extant	Native	–	–

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: The breeding range of the Cape Fur Seal is primarily associated with the cold, nutrient-rich Benguela Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) in the southeast Atlantic Ocean, with less than two percent of the population inhabiting the warm, nutrient-poor Agulhas Current Large Marine Ecosystem (ACLME) in the southwest Indian Ocean (Kirkman et al. 2016). Productivity in the BCLME is largely the result of seven known wind-driven upwelling cells (Santana-Casiano et al. 2009). In contrast, productivity in the ACLME’s is driven by two persistent upwelling cells only (Lutjeharms 2006). 

 FAO Area Occurrence 

	Presence	Origin	Formerly Bred	Seasonality
47. Atlantic – southeast	Extant	Native	–	–
57. Indian Ocean – southwest	Extant	Native	–	–

Climate change

Pinnipeds generally inhabit temperate or polar habitats, which are expected to be substantially impacted by a warming climate (Laidre et al. 2008, Simmonds & Isaac 2007, Kovacs et al. 2012, Gulland et al. 2022). This may have a number of impacts, including potentially influencing the availability of prey species. Some 98 % of the Cape Fur Seal population inhabit the Benguela Current system (Kirkman et al. 2013). In common with other eastern boundary systems, it is highly productive and supports a high biomass of top predators (Bakun et al. 2015). However, the system is not immune from the effects of anthropogenic climate change and has experienced increased an intensity in upwelling with concomitant increases in sea surface temperature offshore and decreases inshore (Santos et al. 2012). However, changes are not uniform, with local characteristics and anthropogenic influences influencing regional changes (Blamey et al. 2015). This has had an impact on the abundance of various fish species, including prey of seals, with populations declining or shifting their distribution southwards (van der Lingen 2006, Blamey et al. 2015). It is possible that these changes are partially responsible for the recent changes in the distribution of the Cape fur seal, with declines in southern Namibian and northern South African colonies, and increases elsewhere (Kirkman et al. 2013, Seakamela et al. 2024). Species that range widely and are generalist feeders are thought to be more resilient to climate change (Laidre et al. 2008, Kovacs et al. 2012). Cape fur seals share these characteristics (De Bruyn et al. 2003, Mecenero et al. 2006, Skern-Mauritzen et al. 2009, Connan et al. 2014, Botha et al. 2020, Botha et al. 2023). They also show an inclination to relocate to other breeding colonies when under stress (Kirkman et al. 2013). However, they are not immune to the effects of climatic aberrations, as shown by the mortality event in 1994 (Roux 1998). Genetic analysis suggests that Cape fur seals have been impacted by past climatic changes (Mathee et al. 2006, Malan et al. 2022). 

 Climate change may also be responsible for the direct mortality of vulnerable age classes in pinnipeds (Kovacs et al. 2012, Gulland et al. 2022). Cape Fur Seals pups are at risk on hot, windstill days when they suffer higher mortality (De Villiers & Roux 1992, Roux 1998). Therefore, an increase in temperatures ashore during the breeding season may limit the range of Cape Fur Seals in the future (Kovacs et al. 2012). Further, climate change may result in increased susceptibility to novel diseases (Harvell et al. 2002, Burek et al. 2008). 

 

Population information

The size of the foraging population of Cape Fur Seals (individuals older than one year) in the early 1990’s was estimated at about 1.7 million individuals with some 75 % of pup production at the three major colonies at Cape Cross, the Wolf Bay-Atlas Bay-Long Island complex and Kleinzee (Butterworth et al. 1995, Kirkman et al. 2013). However, there have been substantial changes in distribution since then, including range expansion. Despite this, overall abundance appears to have remained relatively stable (Kirkman et al. 2007, Kirkman et al. 2013, Seakamela et al. 2024a). Concomitant with the establishment of new breeding colonies, especially in northern Namibia and southern Angola, there has been a decline in other colonies, especially the major colonies in the southern Namibia (Kirkman et al. 2013). Currently, approximately 40 breeding colonies are found throughout the range of the species (Kirkman et al. 2013). Pup counts from the 2017/2018 breeding season indicated that some 65% of pup production (298,772) took place in Namibia (Mwaala et al. 2024) and most of the remainder in South Africa (104,332) (Seakamela et al. 2024a).  

Current abundance of the foraging population in South Africa is suggested to be 652,075 individuals based on pup production (Seakamela et al. 2024a). Numbers have not increased since the 1990’s (Butterworth et al. 1995, Kirkman et al. 2013, Seakamela et al. 2024a). Although new colonies have been established on the South African coast, with breeding now taking place at 28 sites, this increase is offset by a substantial reduction in pup production at the largest mainland colony, at Kleinsee (Seakamela et al. 2024a). Although this colony has declined by about 40 % from its peak abundance, it is still responsible for most pup production in South Africa (Kirkman et al. 2013, Seakamela et al. 2024a). The second largest colony is on Vondeling Island, despite it only being recolonised in the early 2000s.  

 Cape Fur Seals have experienced major mortality events in recent years. In 1994 poor environmental conditions resulted in poor pup recruitment and the death of adults in southern Namibia (Roux 1998). This was followed, in 2021 by a die-off of pups from colonies on the west coast of South Africa (Sgqolana 2021a, b, Bega 2021). However, these events seem to have had a negligible impact on the population numbers (Seakamela et al. 2024). 

 Generation length has been calculated at 9.1 years (Pacifici et al. 2013). Population change over three generations from 1972–2020 has been positive (Unpublished Data, DFFE). 

 Population Information 

Continuing decline in mature individuals? No 

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: No 

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: No 

All individuals in one subpopulation: No 

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown 

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown 

Severely fragmented: No 

Current population trend: Stable

 Quantitative Analysis 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: None 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: None 

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: None  

Population genetics

Uncontrolled harvesting from the 17th century reduced Cape Fur Seal abundance to less than 100,000 individuals by the beginning of the 20th century (Shaughnessy and Butterworth 1981) possibly resulting in a demographic bottleneck. However, the population had recovered to a foraging population of more than 1,700,000 individuals by the early 1990s (Butterworth et al. 1995). Mitochondrial haplotype diversity of Cape Fur Seals remaining reasonably high (Matthee et al. 2006, Robbertse et al. 2025). However, nucleotide diversity is low. It is suggested that this was due to an ancient demographic bottleneck (Matthee et al. 2006). This was likely followed by expansion during the Last Glacial Maximum, starting some 18,000 years ago (Matthee et al. 2006, Malan et al. 2022). This resulted in the migration of individuals to Australia, founding what would become the congeneric Australian fur seal (Lento et al. 1997, Malan et al. 2022). Genetic analysis shows that contact between the two subspecies ceased some 13,000 years ago (Malan et al. 2022).  

Cape Fur Seals are dispersed along some 3,000 km of coastline. Despite this, both mitochondrial and nuclear DNA analysis do not support sub-structuring (Matthee et al. 2006, Robbertse et al. 2025). This is suggested to be partly attributable to relatively low female philopatry (Oosthuizen 1991, Matthee et al. 2006). While the Lüderitz upwelling cell is considered a barrier between marine organisms occurring in the northern and southern Benguela systems (Lett et al. 2024), this has not hindered the movement of Cape Fur Seals (Skern-Mauritzen et al. 2009).  

 The effective population size (Nc) of Cape Fur Seals is estimated to lie between 65,208 and 195,623. 

 

Habitats and ecology

The Cape Fur Seal is one of the largest of all the fur seals. It is also highly sexually dimorphic. Adult males are 2–2.3 m long and average 247 kg in weight. Adult females are 1.2–1.6 m long and weigh an average of 57 kg. At birth they weigh around 6 kg (Shaughnessy 1979). Females become sexually mature at 3–6 years. While males reach sexual maturity at the same age, they are only socially mature at 9–12 years (Wickens & York 1997). The annual pregnancy rate of mature females has been estimated at 71% (Wickens & York 1997). Gestation is known to last 51 weeks, including a three-month delay of implantation but longevity and adult mortality are unknown (Reijnders et al. 1993; Butterworth et al. 1995; Wickens & York 1997). 

Cape Fur Seals are highly polygynous with breeding males defending territories where multiple females gather to pup. Breeding occurs from late October to the beginning of January, with adult males arriving at the colonies first. Females give birth 1.5–2 days after their arrival. The peak of pupping is in the first week of December, although there is some variation between colonies (David 1987a). Mothers attend to their pup for about 6-7 days before coming into oestrous, mating, and then departing on their first foraging trip (Rand 1955). From then until weaning at 10-12 months of age, the mothers alternate between regular foraging trips to sea and shore visits to nourish their pups with milk (David 1987a). The Cape Fur Seal is positively thigmotactic, a trait that they have in common with sea lions but not with other fur seals. 

Cape Fur Seals spend the majority of their lives at sea, typically over the continental shelf and within 80 kilometres of the shore (David 1987). While they also inhabit the relatively warm waters of the Agulhas Current Large Marine Ecosystems (ACLME), some 98 % are found in the waters of the cooler and more productive Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME). Cape Fur Seals are generalist foragers that take a wide variety of pelagic, demersal and benthic prey, including Cape Hake (Merluccius spp.), Horse Mackerel (Trachurus spp.), Pelagic Goby (Sufflogobius bibarbatus), Pilchards (Sardinops sp.), Anchovy (Engraulis capensis), Squid ( Loligo sp.), Rock Lobster (Jasus lalandi), shrimp, prawns, and amphipods. However, they prefer Pelagic Teleost Fish (David 1987a; de Bruyn et al. 2003; Mecenero et al. 2006; Huisamen et al. 2012, Connan et al. 2014). Although their habitat has been subject to ecosystem changes, their prey preferences have not altered, only the ratios consumed (Gumede 2023, Mwaala et al. 2024). Cape Fur Seals feed on a similar diet throughout their range, but with greater proportion of benthic fish in the ACLME in some years (Castley et al. 1991, Stewardson 2001, Huisamen et al. 2012, Connan et al. 2014). Predation on seabirds has been reported, including species of conservation concern such as Cape Gannets (Morus capensis) (Makhado et al. 2006), African Penguins (Spheniscus demersus) (Johnson et al. 2006), and Cape Cormorants (Phalocrocorax capensis) (Marks et al. 1997). Recently, Cape Fur Seals have also been recorded to kill Kelp Gulls (Larus dominicanus) (Gumede 2023).  

Cape Fur Seals haul out to breed on land and their pups are largely restricted to terrestrial habitat (David 1987). Historically, they bred on offshore islands. However, colonies were established in isolated mainland areas in the 20th century, possibly due to disturbance caused by harvesting at adjacent islands (Rand 1972, Shaughnessy and Butterworth 1981). Mainland sites have become the largest colonies, perhaps because space is less restricted (David 1987). In recent years, with the redistribution of prey species, colonies have been established at sub-optimal localities such as on low-lying rocks (for example, Grotto Bay) which are exposed to strong surf and below steep cliffs (for example, Cape Point, Robberg Peninsula) both of which are unlikely to result in high pup mortality.  

 Ecosystem and cultural services: The Cape Fur Seal is the only pinniped regularly breeding on the South Africa coast. As a top predator they most likely have a critical role in prey regulation and the structure and functioning of the ecosystem. While the nature of this role is not completely known, due the complexity of the marine food web, modelling studies have provided some insight in this regard. Although Cape Fur Seals are frequently suggested to be significant competitors with commercial fisheries, modelling has suggested that predation by Cape Fur Seals on predatory fish (for example, hake) could possibly result in greater biomass of target fish available for fisheries, with potential for a net negative impact on the fishery if seal numbers were reduced (Punt & Butterworth 1995). 

Pinnipeds are potential indicators of changes in ecosystem health or abundance of marine resources, especially because they are partially terrestrial and therefore more accessible to researchers (Sanders et al. 2025). Changes in numbers, distribution or other characteristics of marine higher predators, such as the Cape Fur Seal, could be symptomatic of changes occurring at lower trophic levels, such as may be caused by effects of overfishing or other environmental (e.g. climatic) changes (Kirkman et al. 2011). 

The Cape Fur Seal also serves as prey for other predators at sea, including the Great White Shark (Carcharodon carcharius) (Martin et al. 2005) and Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) (Rand 1955). Ashore, their pups are preyed upon by Black-backed Jackals (Lupullela mesomelas), African Lions (Panthera leo) and Brown Hyaenas (Hyaena brunnea) (Oosthuizen et al. 1997; Wiesel 2010, Stander 2019). 

The attractiveness of seal colonies on the southwest coast to Great White Sharks, and associated shark-seal predatory interactions, is important for the commercial success of the Great White Shark viewing ecotourism industry. In addition, Cape Fur Seal colonies provide a reliable attraction (unlike more elusive taxa targeted for tourist viewing such as some whales, dolphins and sharks) and are part of the viewing experience on offer by several ecotourism ventures. Some seal colonies on the mainland can also be viewed by land-based tourists, usually as part of a broader package (Kirkwood et al. 2003). Examples are at the Kleinsee colony which is situated in a mining lease and is one of the viewing experiences on offer during mine tours, and the Bird Island Reserve in Lambert’s Bay, where a seal colony is visible from a tourist hide beside the gantry. 

 IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme 

Habitat	Season	Suitability	Major Importance?
9.1. Marine Neritic -> Marine Neritic – Pelagic	–	Suitable	Yes
10.1. Marine Oceanic -> Marine Oceanic – Epipelagic (0-200m)	–	Suitable	Yes
12.1. Marine Intertidal -> Marine Intertidal – Rocky Shoreline	–	Suitable	Yes
13.1. Marine Coastal/Supratidal -> Marine Coastal/Supratidal – Sea Cliffs and Rocky Offshore Islands	–	Suitable	Yes

Life History 

Generation Length: 9 

Age at Maturity: Female or unspecified: 4-5 

Age at Maturity: Male: 3-4 (puberty), 9-10 (social maturity) 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: 147 

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: 199 

Longevity: 31 (based on specimens in captivity) 

Average Reproductive Age: 9.4 

Maximum Size (in cms):  241 

Size at Birth (in cms):  70-80 cm 

Gestation Time: ~8 months (from implantation) 

Reproductive Periodicity: Annual 

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: 1 

Natural Mortality: 0.2-0.3 (old estimate-needs revision) 

 Breeding Strategy 

Does the species lay eggs? No

Does the species give birth to live young? Yes

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis? No

Does the species have a free-living larval stage? No 

Does the species require water for breeding? No

Movement Patterns 

Movement Patterns: Non-migratory, feeding mostly over the continental shelf  

Congregatory: Yes, highly gregarious on land. Can be gregarious or solitary at sea. 

 Systems 

System: Terrestrial (breeding), Marine (foraging) 

General Use and Trade Information

Cape Fur Seals were hunted heavily from the 17th to the 19th centuries, and abundance was reduced to low levels but have recovered under protective legislation first introduced in 1893 (Butterworth et al. 1995). Commercial harvesting took place in South Africa until this was suspended in 1990 (Hanks 1990; Wickens et al. 1991). The killing of seals for profit in South Africa is now prohibited in terms of the Marine Living Resources Act (MLRA 1998). However, Cape Fur Seals are still harvested commercially in Namibia and are also subject to trophy hunting (Campbell et al. 2011; Japp et al. 2012). Products of commercial seal harvesting include fur products from pelts, leather products from skin, the male genitalia for traditional aphrodisiacs, oil for medicinal uses and meat, bone meal and oil as additives to animal fodder, as well as the subsistence consumption of meat (Campbell et al. 2011). However, import/export data from CITES indicated that there has been a drastic drop in export of Cape Fur Seal products from Namibia (CITES 2024). Since the last assessment, an annual Total Annual Catch (TAC) of 60 000 was set for pups and 8 000 for bulls. This was reduced to 6 000 for bulls in 2023. The actual number of pups taken dropped from 24% of the TAC in 2016 to 4% of the TAC in 2023. For bulls, the harvest ranged between 53% and 91% of the TAC, with a marked drop in 2022 (62%) and 2023 (58%). 

Subsistence:	Rationale:	Local Commercial:	Further detail including information on economic value if available:
Yes	–	–	–

National Commercial Value: Yes (non-consumptive) 

International Commercial Value: Yes (non-consumptive) 

End Use	Subsistence	National	International	Other (please specify)
1. Food – human	true	true	–	–

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? No 

Harvest Trend Comments: The take in Namibia has declined. 

 

 

Threats

Cape Fur Seals face both direct threats, such as mortality from fisheries bycatch, entanglement in debris, and illegal killing, and various indirect threats such as trophic interactions with fisheries, shifts in prey abundance and distribution, climate change impacts, contamination by oil and other pollutants and novel diseases. Although good data are missing, direct threats are thought to kill relatively few animals. However, these mortalities could still result in localised demographic impacts (Shaughnessy 1980; Wickens et al. 1992). These impacts come primarily from the fisheries industry. The numbers of seals killed illegally by fishermen, especially where seals interfere with fishing operations (e.g. line or long-line fisheries) are unknown but are potentially higher than bycatch- or entanglement-related mortality levels (Wickens et al. 1992; David & Wickens 2003). There is however improved awareness of the illegality of the practice. There are also attempts to improve the reporting of animals killed at sea or those washing up on beaches with evidence of having been killed (Sanders et al. 2025). Bycatch in fisheries operations remains a challenge. While the quantity of seals caught in fisheries operations is not known, fisheries are mandated through permit conditions to report incidents. Although bycatch numbers have been estimated to be low (< 1% of population size), they could still result in localised demographic impacts (Shaughnessy 1980; Wickens et al. 1992), Entanglement incidents are primarily in debris originating in the fisheries industry (Curtis et al. 2021, Henry 2022, Forsberg 2023). Although there are disentanglement efforts in some parts of the species’ range, many entanglements likely lead to the death of affected individuals.  

Indirect threats potentially pose a greater threat than direct impacts. Cape Fur Seals prey on several species that are also targeted by commercial or recreational fisheries (David 1987b; Wickens et al. 1992). The effects of these trophic interactions with fisheries on the seal population are difficult to quantify given the complexities of the marine food web and the fact that seals also prey on a range of other species that are not targeted by fisheries (David 1987b). However, these interactions are of concern considering increasing trends in fishing effort and declining catch rates (for example, Mann 2013). This may be exacerbated by shifts in prey distribution and abundance associated with ecosystem changes (e.g. related to climate change). As an example, there has been a recent south and eastward shift in the epicentre of anchovy and sardine biomass along the South African coast (Roy et al. 2007; Coetzee et al. 2008) which would have negatively impacted on availability of these prey items to some colonies.  

Indirect impacts have also resulted in the greatest recorded mortalities of Cape Fur Seals. The so-called Benguela Nino event in 1994/1995, resulted from unfavourable environmental conditions with detrimental effects on prey populations and therefore feeding conditions. This led to the deaths of almost an entire cohort of pups and many adults in part of the range (Roux 1998). This is the largest mass die off recorded for any seal species (Harwood 2002). A lower magnitude die-off occurred over a wider area (Namibia and South Africa) between 2020 and 2021, killing over 10,000 individuals, mostly pups. In South Africa, laboratory test from 8 carcasses from the 2021 mass die-off indicated protein energy malnutrition as a cause of death (Seakamela et al. 2021). The uncertainty brought by climate change may result in further such events. Such events would also likely be exacerbated by fishing pressure, just as the 1994/1995 event in Namibia is believed to have been intensified by high levels of fishing at the time (Boyer & Hampton 2001). In recent years relatively high numbers of dead or malnourished stranded Cape Fur Seals have been observed on the west coast of South Africa, where fish stocks are known to be depleted (Department of Environmental Affairs unpubl. data). Acting in unison with climate change and fishing pressures are disease outbreaks.  

Several morbillivirus epidemics have occurred in true seal (Phocid) populations in the northern hemisphere, and it is thought that the infections were transmitted to the seals by domestic dogs or terrestrial carnivores (Kennedy et al. 2000). Although no epidemic diseases are known to have infected Cape Fur Seals historically, there are now emerging health concerns in the population. In 2024, positive cases of rabies virus that is genetically similar to a canine strain found in Black-backed Jackals were detected in the Western Cape (Van Helden 2024, Department of Agriculture 2024). The virus is now endemic in the population, suggesting that it has been in the population for some time prior to detection. High Pathogenicity Avian Influenza (HPAI) is a potential future concern. This disease has resulted in the mortalities of numbers of sympatric species of seabirds (Abolnik et al. 2024). While impact on Cape Fur Seals have not yet been recorded, HPAI has resulted in mass mortalities of pinnipeds elsewhere (Alava et al. 2024, Campagna et al. 2024).  

Other potential threats of climatic changes include predicted sea level rises and increased frequencies of extreme weather events (e.g. storms). These may threaten the viability of seal colonies at small, low-lying islands such as Black Rocks in Algoa Bay which are already vulnerable to catastrophic events (Stewardson 1999, Hofmeyr et al. 2011) and could result in localised depletions. A further threat is increased mortality, especially of young pups, associated with increased air temperatures, a decrease in cooling winds or an increase in the number of hot days per year. This threat may be most relevant to mainland colonies (e.g. de Villiers & Roux 1992).  

Seal-targeted tourism has increased in popularity in recent years. Tourism activities include boat-based viewing, swim-with (snorkelling and scuba diving) and illegal feeding for selfies. Boat-based activities have been shown to elicit behavioural response from seals relatively more than other activities (Cate 2013). Two sites in South Africa have established dive-with or snorkelling operations, one in Plettenberg Bay and another in Hout Bay. In Hout Bay, the impacts of this industry were found to be minimal and are not expected to be adverse at the colony or population level (Heidi 2020). In Plettenberg Bay, presence of the boat and swimmers did elicit short-term behavioural responses such a decreased state of restfulness (Basson 2024). Illegal seal feeding tourism has also gained notoriety. This activity has been argued to have potentially negative impacts at the individual and population level. Some of the impacts include dependency on humans, habituation, aggression when food is unavailable, potential disease transfers and alteration to natural behavioural patterns (Orams 2002). This activity is mostly limited to Hout Bay and Kalk Bay (both in Cape Town); at the former, cases of aggression and bites to tourists and feeders have been reported. Furthermore, some of these animals are considered obese and have been diagnosed with blindness and other comorbidities.  

 The growing focus on oceans economy could introduce further challenges and may exacerbate existing ones. Emerging changes in land-use patterns may impact the breeding habitat of the species. The growth of oceans economy may result in more residential and commercial property developments and operations closer to breeding colonies. This may cause breeding females to desert their preferred habitat for less optimal habitats. In the assessment region, Marine Spatial Planning programmes have been introduced to better manage potential threats of a growing oceans economy. Further out to sea, foraging grounds will be more susceptible to oil spills due to the increase in ship traffic and prevailing adverse weather which is known to cause marine incidents. Like other fur seals, Cape Fur Seals are vulnerable to oil spills which can reduce the insulation properties of their fur, be ingested in toxic concentrations or affect populations of prey (Kirkwood & Goldsworthy 2013). 
 

Conservation

Although Cape Fur Seals have been protected in South Africa since 1893, they were still subject to government-run or government-authorised commercial harvests until 1990 (Wickens et al. 1991; Butterworth et al. 1995). Various legislations have been passed over time to meet the changing management requirement.  The Seabirds and Seals Protection Act (SBSPA; Act no. 46 of 1973), regulated sealing methods and provided broad protection for seals in South Africa and the then South West Africa. The Commercial killing of seals for profit are now prohibited in terms of the Marine Living Resources Act (Act no. 18 of 1998; Policy on the management of seals, seabirds and shorebirds (Government Gazette No. 30534, 2007). To better manage human interactions with seals (for example. culling, feeding, captivity), the Threatened or Protected Species Regulations (Government Gazzette No. 40876 of 2017) were gazetted in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (10/2004), also known as NEM:BA. Concurrently and in terms of NEM:BA,  A number of seal colonies occur within or adjacent to marine protected areas (MPAs) or reserves. These include:  

• Bird Island, Lambert’s Bay (Bird Island Reserve, CapeNature). 
• Black Rocks (Bird Island MPA, SANParks) Cape Point (Table Mountain National Park MPA, SANParks)
• Duikerklip (Table Mountain National Park MPA, SANParks) 
• Quoin Rock and Geyser Rock (Dyer Island Nature Reserve Complex, CapeNature)  
• Robberg Peninsula (Robberg Nature Reserve and Marine Protected Area, CapeNature)  
• Sammy’s Bay (Namaqua National Park, SANParks) 
• Strandfontein Point (Namaqua National Park, SANParks) 
• Vondeling Island (Vondeling Island Reserve, CapeNature)  

Besides Vondeling Island, seals also haul out on other islands adjacent to the West Coast National Park around which MPAs have been declared (e.g. Jutten Island, SANParks). Three mainland breeding colonies in the Northern Cape including the South Africa’s largest Cape Fur Seal breeding colony near Kleinsee, occur in mining lease areas where human access is restricted, affording these colonies a level of protection.  Cape Fur Seals would further benefit from more stringent regulation of reporting of bycatch and improvement of fishing gear design. An example of the impact of such interventions are the mitigation measures implemented in New Zealand’s hoki trawl fishery, which reduced Hooker’s Sea Lion (Phocarctos hookeri) bycatch by almost 90%. The population has since showed signs of recovery (Porritt & Goodman 2005). Ongoing monitoring and research within the assessment region should be maintained.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners: 

• Continuation of regular population censuses (aerial pup surveys). 
• Monitor changes in key demographic parameters, especially those that may be related to climatic or other changes.  
• Regional (transboundary) cooperation with regard to research and monitoring, including standardisation of research methods. 
• Regulation of seal ecotourism activities. 
• Ensuring protection of mainland seal colonies situated in current mining lease areas where human access has been restricted, in the event that these areas become accessible to the public. 
• Preventing commercial operations (including mining and development) from encroaching into seal breeding territories.  
• Prevention of direct mortality due to fisheries operations.  
• Initiate national disease surveillance and monitoring initiatives.  

Research priorities:

The following research topics are currently being investigated: 

• Demography, diet, foraging behaviour and fisheries interactions of Cape Fur Seals in Algoa Bay (Port Elizabeth Museum, Nelson Mandela University and Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment, DFFE). 
• Seal-seabirds interactions at Vondeling Island (DFFE/CapeNature, ongoing). 
• Diet of the Cape Fur Seal at key colonies on the West and South Coasts (DFFE, long-term monitoring effort). 
• Cape Fur Seal pup trends from comprehensive aerial surveys (DFFE, long term monitoring effort).
• Identifying and determining the size of home ranges and core feeding areas for Cape Fur Seals (DFFE). 
• Monitoring of marine debris entangling the Cape Fur Seal (DFFE/Two Oceans Aquarium-A long-term monitoring effort). 
• Assessing the effects of “swim-with-seal” tourism activities on a seal colony (Nelson Mandela University/DFE). 
• Cape Fur Seal health and disease surveillance (SeaSearch, DFFE, Stellenbosch University, Port Elizabeth Museum and others) 
• Investigation of population parameters required for extending pup counts to total population size (including e.g. mark-recapture, pup growth, initial pup survival at Kleinsee breeding colony (DFFE). 

 The following research topics should be investigated: 

• Updated assessments of extent of trophic interactions between seals and fishing, including development of population and bioenergetics models to determine consumption rates, and spatial models of foraging effort distribution. 
• Updated assessments of operational interactions between seals and fisheries to provide estimates of effects on the population and revised recommendations for mitigation. 
• Assessment of effects of seal ecotourism activities on seal colonies. 
• Assessments of effects of variability in the environment and prey availability on the population, through long-term monitoring of key parameters or indices, e.g. diet, foraging trip duration, foraging distributions, breeding phenology, abortion rates, pup birth mass and growth, early survival rates, at key locations. 

 Encouraged citizen actions: 

• Citizens contribute to science and conservation management by reporting stranded, sick, injured or entangled seals to appropriate authorities. There has been an increase in reporting on virtual platforms, such as iNaturalist.  

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