Overview

Lepus victoriae – Thomas, 1893

ANIMALIA – CHORDATA – MAMMALIA – LAGOMORPHA – LEPORIDAE – Lepus – victoriae

Common Names: African Savanna Hare (English), Afrikanischer Savannen Hase (German), Lievre Des Savanes (French)
Synonyms: Lepus crawshayi de Winton, 1899; Lepus microtis Heuglin, 1865, L. whytei. Fifteen listed in total (Happold 2013b).

Taxonomic Note: Previously this was assessed as Lepus microtis. Here, L. victoriae is maintained as a valid species following Happold (2013).

The taxonomic status of this species and synonyms (including microtis, crawshayi, canopus, whytei and zechi) are uncertain (Happold 2013, Awadi and Ben Slimen 2018). Hoffmann and Smith (2005) recognised four subspecies: Lepus microtis angolensis, L. m. microtis, L. m. senegalensis, and L. m. whytei. Happold (2013) lists a total of 15 synonyms. This species was formerly included in L. saxatilis and has been classified under several different names (saxatilis, crawshayi, whytei, and victoriae) (Hoffmann and Smith 2005). Ben Slimen et al. (2008) suggest that the name Lepus victoriae be retained and microtis considered a “nomen dubium” referencing Petter (1959) and Angermann (1965).

In Africa, L. capensis sensu lato, in addition to five other Lepus species are currently classified (Lepus saxatilis, Lepus victoriae, Lepus habessinicus, Lepus fagani and Lepus starcki), primarily distinguished by morphological characters (Happold 2013). However, their evolutionary history, genetic differentiation and distribution remain poorly understood. This is confounded by the frequent sharing of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) between species and discordant patterns between mtDNA and with nuclear DNA (Ben Slimen et al.)

Red List Status: Least concern

Assessment Information

Assessors: Wilson-Hartmann, B.¹ & da Silva, J.² 

Reviewer: Moodley, S.³ 

Institutions: ¹McGregor Museum, Kimberley, ²South African National Biodiversity Institute, ³Private 

Previous Assessors & Reviewers: Robinson, T.J., Relton, C. & Child, M.F. 

Previous Contributors: Roxburgh, L. & Smith, A. 

Assessment Rationale

Lepus victoriae in South Africa occurs widely within the assessment region in many habitats both protected and transformed. Ongoing molecular research is urgently required to resolve their taxonomic statuses and relationships to delimit their geographical ranges, and thus assess threat severity, more accurately. These species may require reassessment when such data becomes available.

Although local declines may be occurring due to overhunting for bushmeat and fur in some areas, there was no evidence to suggest a significant widespread population decline during past assessments However, with the outbreak of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus strain 2 (RHDV-2) in November 2022 in the Northern Cape Province, South Africa  that subsequently spread to all the provinces (DALRRD 2024), urgent investigations are needed to ascertain the effect on populations and subpopulations.  It is relatively abundant in the northeastern regions of the assessment region. Thus, the Least Concern listing is retained until taxonomic resolution and population data suggest otherwise.

Regional population effects: Taxonomic revision is required to substantiate the geographical range limits of Lepus species in southern Africa.

Reasons for Change

Reason(s) for Change in Red List Category from the Previous Assessment: No change

Red List Index

Red List Index: No change

Recommended citation: Wilson-Hartmann B & da Silva JM. 2025. A conservation assessment of Lepus victoriae. In Patel T, Smith C, Roxburgh L, da Silva JM & Raimondo D, editors. The Red List of Mammals of South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho. South African National Biodiversity Institute and Endangered Wildlife Trust, South Africa.

Regional Distribution and occurrence

Geographic Range 

Lepus victoriae has an extensive African distribution, which extends along the Atlantic coast (Guinea, The Gambia, Senegal, Mauritania and Western Sahara), across the Sahel and into western Kenya and Ethiopia, southwards to South Africa, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Botswana and Namibia (Hoffmann & Smith 2005; Smith & Johnston 2008). Additionally, an isolated population has been found in western Algeria (Flux & Angermann 1990; Hoffmann & Smith 2005). However, taxonomic uncertainty again limits confidence in geographical distribution with Happold (2013) stating that the species is not found in south-western Africa (being instead replaced by L. saxatilis). It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution (northeastern parts of the country, including the North West, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng and Limpopo provinces, as well as the easterly regions of the Eastern Cape Province); they are separated largely by habitat with L. victoriae preferring mountain regions (Wilson et al. 2016).

Taxonomic resolution and vetting of museum records through molecular research is needed urgently to resolve the tentative geographical ranges.

Elevation / Depth / Depth Zones

Elevation Lower Limit (in metres above sea level): (Not specified)

Elevation Upper Limit (in metres above sea level): 3 600m

Depth Lower Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified)

Depth Upper Limit (in metres below sea level): (Not specified)

Depth Zone: (Not specified)

Map

Figure 1. Distribution records for African Savanna Hare (Lepus victoriae) within the assessment region (South Africa, Eswatini and Lesotho). Note that distribution data is obtained from multiple sources and records have not all been individually verified.

Countries of Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems (LME) Occurrence 

Large Marine Ecosystems: (Not specified) 

FAO Area Occurrence 

FAO Marine Areas: (Not specified) 

Climate change

Whilst climate change per se is unlikely to have a dramatic effect on this species during this assessment period, climate change is already affecting the spread of infectious diseases beyond their typical geographic reach. Whilst this may not be the cause of the outbreak of Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus strain 2 (RHDV-2) in South Africa at the end of 2022, it can assist in the spread of the virus and increase the susceptibility of hares and rabbits to the effects of droughts and periods of flooding. Often, the cross-border spread of infectious diseases is further exacerbated by the lack of global governance (that led to the introduction of this disease into South Africa and allowed it to spread to neighbouring countries), policies or a consensus to mitigate climate change. As a result, the current and future burden on humans, animals and plants is significant, especially if these infectious diseases cause large scale outbreaks such as RHDV-2.

Population information

No detailed population or density estimates are available for L. victoriae but it is considered a successful and common species (Flux & Angermann 1990; Smith & Johnston 2008).

Lepus species overall generally exhibit a fast population turnover and a high rate of reproduction (Kryger et al. 2004b). While a slow decline has been predicted due to habitat loss and hunting pressure (Kryger et al. 2004a), it is expected that land conversion from livestock to wildlife may benefit Lepus species and counteract population declines by creating and reconnecting suitable habitat patches.  However, the status of scattered subpopulations and isolated subspecies is largely unknown and may be severely threatened by the recent RHDV-2 outbreak that is affecting all Lepus and Pronolagus populations throughout southern Africa.

Population Information

Continuing decline in mature individuals? Yes

Extreme fluctuations in the number of subpopulations: No

Continuing decline in number of subpopulations: Yes

All individuals in one subpopulation: No

Number of mature individuals in largest subpopulation: Unknown

Number of Subpopulations: Unknown

Quantitative Analysis

Probability of extinction in the wild within 3 generations or 10 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: Unknown

Probability of extinction in the wild within 5 generations or 20 years, whichever is longer, maximum 100 years: Unknown

Probability of extinction in the wild within 100 years: Unknown

Population genetics

While molecular studies have been conducted on the genus Lepus, and in particular L. capensis (e.g., Suchentrunk et al. 2009; Lado et al. 2019), little molecular research has investigated L. victoriae in detail.

While few records are noted for L. victoriae, it is believed to be widely distributed across the northeastern parts of South Africa. Given the ability of Lepus species to utilise modified habitats and be able to disperse, the species is believed to exist as a metapopulation. Assuming no obstructions to gene flow and no known subpopulation extinctions, the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Global Biodiversity Framework’s (GBF’s) complementary genetic indicator – proportion of populations maintained (PM) – would receive a value of 1.0 (all populations remaining).

While no census size (Nc) data exists and there is a lack of general density estimates, the assumption of no population structure within the assessment region, the likely presence of gene flow between neighbouring countries, and a rapid turnover in offspring, it is very likely the effective population size (Ne) of the species in the region exceeds the Ne 500, suggesting a healthy and stable population.  Based on these assumptions, the GBF’s headline genetic indicator – proportion of populations with an effective population size, Ne, greater than 500 – would receive a value of 1.0 (1 metapopulation/1 with Ne 500 = 1.0).

Given the limited demographic and genetic data available for this species, this information should be taken with caution. It is recommended that a population genetic study be undertaken across the species range within the assessment region and beyond to investigate the genetic structure and diversity in L. victoriae.

Habitats and ecology

Little data is currently available regarding the general ecology of L. victoriae (Boitani et al. 1999).  The African Savanna Hare occurs in scrub, bush, and grassland habitats, preferring scrubby and montane habitats. It has been reported in mountain regions up to ¢.3 600 m on Mount Kenya and is also recorded in semiarid grasslands. It coexists with the Cape Hare (L. capensis) over much of its distribution; they are separated largely by habitat. Where L. capensis and L. victoriae co-occur, the latter prefers scrubbier and more montane habitats (Flux & Angermann 1990). Helping it to cut and nip at vegetation are two pairs of chisel-shaped incisors, which display a distinctive groove pattern that sets it apart from L. capensis. L. victoriae hasbeen recorded in grassland associations of Themeda triandra and Imperata cylindrical (both Poaceae) in Ruanda-Urundi and Tarchonanthus camphoratus (Asteraceae) scrub in East Africa (Wilson et al. 2016). It is suspected that this species can thrive in agricultural landscapes.

The diet of this species varies with habitat type, and similar to other Lepus species, females breed throughout the year and mean litter size was 1-6 precocious young Flux and Angermann (1990), and the numbers of litters per year were 6-8, resulting in a mean of 11-2 young/female/year (Wilson et al. 2016).

L. victoriae is strictly nocturnal and spend most of the day lying in a “form”—a depression in the ground or under bushes. Home ranges are 5-10 ha. They live mostly alone but are sometimes seen in groups of 2-3 individuals while feeding.

Ecosystem and cultural services: Lepus species form a valuable prey component for a broad array of carnivores, such as Black-backed Jackals (Lupulella mesomelas); Kamler et al. 2012; Bagniewska & Kamler 2014) and Verreaux’s Eagles (Aquila verreauxii; Cruz-Uribe & Klein 1998). Hares were found to be the dominant prey taxon for Martial Eagles (Polemaetus bellicosus) in the Cape region of South Africa, making up 50% of the total diet (Boshoff et al. 1990). Lepus species were also found to constitute a small component of the diet of Cape Foxes (Vulpes chama) in the Free State (Kamler et al. 2012).

IUCN Habitats Classification Scheme

Life History

Generation Length: Unknown

Age at maturity: female or unspecified: 1 year

Age at Maturity: Male: 1 year

Size at Maturity (in cms): Female: (Not specified)

Size at Maturity (in cms): Male: (Not specified)

Longevity: (Not specified)1-5 years

Average Reproductive Age: (Not specified)

Maximum Size (in cms): 55cm

Size at Birth (in cms): (Not specified)

Gestation Time: 42 days

Reproductive Periodicity: All months

Average Annual Fecundity or Litter Size: LS=1.6 (average)

Natural Mortality: (Not specified)

Breeding Strategy

Does the species lay eggs?: No

Does the species give birth to live young: Yes

Does the species exhibit parthenogenesis: No

Does the species have a free-living larval stage?: No

Does the species require water for breeding?: No

Movement Patterns

Movement Patterns: (Not specified)

Congregatory: (Not specified)

Systems

System: Terrestrial

General Use and Trade Information

Lepus species are hunted recreationally for sport, bushmeat and fur at a subsistence level in the assessment region. However, this is not expected to have a substantial effect on the population. Both L. capensis and L. saxatilis were listed as species utilised for traditional medicine in South Africa, as they are believed to have medicinal or curative properties (Maliehe 1993; Ntiamoa-Baidu 1997) and this likely to be the same with L. victoriae.

Local Livelihood: Unknown

National Commercial Value: No

International Commercial Value: No

End Use: Unknown

Is there harvest from captive/cultivated sources of this species? No

Harvest Trend Comments: Unknown

Threats

Across their range, as well as within the assessment region, Lepus species are threatened by habitat loss and fragmentation because of urban sprawl, agricultural encroachment, commercial plantations, and infrastructure development for tourism (Drew et al. 2004; Kryger et al. 2004a). Additionally, these species are threatened by hunting pressure through both recreational sport hunting, as well as subsistence hunting for bushmeat and fur (Kryger et al. 2004a). While agricultural and urban expansion may not necessarily cause direct declines, they may increase hunting pressures. Hunting pressure is likely to cause local subpopulation declines. For example, drastic population declines have been observed in KwaZulu-Natal, specifically in Harding and Port Shepstone in southern KwaZulu-Natal (Kryger et al. 2004a). Lepus species may also be vulnerable to predation by domestic dogs associated with farming areas.

However, a more urgent threat has recently emerged. In October 2022, reports of unusual Lepus deaths were received from the Middelpos, Springbok and Fraserburg areas in the Northern Cape. In November 2022, affected carcasses tested by Onderstepoort Veterinary Research Laboratory, the deaths were confirmed to as the result of the highly contagious and acute fatal hepatitis of Leporids called Rabbit Haemorrhagic Disease Virus 2 strain (RHDV-2). The new variant RHDV-2 affects rabbits, but also causes fatal RHD in various Lepus species, including Sardinian Cape hares (L. capensis mediterraneus), Italian hares (L. corsicanus), and mountain hares (L. timidus) (Rocchi & Dagleish 2018). This disease, which originated in China in 1984, primarily affects all rabbit and hares. Caused by a calicivirus, it was previously absent in South Africa. Infection typically occurs by the oral route. It spreads very easily, normally through direct contact between individuals but is also carried by insects, birds, scavengers feeding on carcasses, contaminated food or urine and faeces, and by humans on clothes, shoes, tools and car tyres. The virus can persist in infected meat (even if frozen) and for long periods in decomposing carcasses (Gleeson & Petritz 2020). Incubation varies from one to three days, and death usually occurs 12-36 hours after the onset of fever. The main clinical manifestations of the acute infection are nervous and respiratory signs, apathy and anorexia. In RHDV-2, clinical signs and mortality are observed even in young animals from 7 to 15 days of age onwards. Indirect control of the disease is easily achieved by vaccination. RHDV has never been reported in humans and other mammals. Outbreaks tend to be seasonal (typically peak breeding seasons) in wild rabbit and hare populations where adults have survived infection and are immune (Kerr & Donnelly 2013). As young kits grow up and stop nursing, they no longer receive the antibodies in their mother’s milk and become susceptible to infection. Mortality rates are high and up to 90% of infected individuals die (WOAH 2025). Not all rabbits exposed to RHDV-2 become overtly ill. A small proportion of infected rabbits clears the virus without developing signs of disease (Kerr & Donnelly 2013).  Asymptomatic carriers also occur, and can continue to shed virus for months, thereby infecting other animals. Surviving rabbits develop a strong immunity to the specific viral variant with which they were infected (Gleeson & Petritz 2020).

This outbreak is of concern for indigenous rabbit and hare species due to their historic naivety to the virus and thus susceptibility to the virus. Whilst a vaccine is available for captive situations overseas, there is no specific treatment for RHDV-2 and management is limited to preventing further spread.

Often, the cross-border spread of infectious diseases is further exacerbated by the lack of global governance, a factor that led to the introduction of this disease into South Africa and allowed it to spread to neighbouring countries.

Conservation

Lepus species are widely distributed across the assessment region, occurring within numerous protected areas, including both formally and privately protected areas (Kryger et al. 2004a). A call for sustainable utilisation of these species is recommended (Kryger et al. 2004a), as they may constitute a low-carbon source of protein and may economically benefit local communities and landowners (Asibey 1974). The development of conservancies to protect appropriate habitats for local subspecies and forms is recommended. Taxonomic resolution at a species and subspecies level is required for the Lepus genus to ensure that localised or isolated populations and subspecies are conserved. Research into the ecology of L. victoriae is lacking and is restricted to localised regions of its distribution (Boitani et al. 1999), thus further investigations are necessary.

Recommendations for land managers and practitioners:

• This species would benefit from suitable land management: landowners should retain corridors of grassland between grazed areas and decrease stocking rates to avoid overgrazing and the loss of grass cover.

Research priorities:

• Taxonomic revision of the Lepus victoriae, including the identification of isolated populations and localised subspecies.
• Survey studies to effectively document the distributional limits and geographical overlap of species and subspecies.
• Population size and trends.
• Effects of wildlife ranching on Lepus species within the assessment region.
• Determination of the impact of RHDV-2 on the southern African population, particularly at subpopulation level.

Encouraged citizen actions:

• Landowners should create conservancies to utilise this species sustainably.
• Refrain from having too many dogs on farms.
• Report sightings of free-roaming individuals on virtual museum platforms (for example, iNaturalist and MammalMAP), especially outside protected areas to enhance the distribution maps.
• Report unusual death outbreaks potentially linked to RHDV-2 and prevent the spread of the disease.

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